Teacher Perceptions Regarding Parental Involvement : simplebooklet.com

v ABSTRACT This study examined the teacher perception regarding parental involvement in the Saipan public high schools. This quantitative study surveyed secondary public school teachers using a survey instrument based on Dr. Joyce Epstein’s six identified types of family involvement in the schools. A survey was used to elicit teacher perceptions on the most effective type of parental involvement at the Saipan public high school level. Communicating and parenting were rated very effective and volunteering and decision-making were rated the least effective. As a result of the study, Saipan public high school teachers reported that when the parental involvement types are paired: (a) parenting is more effective than volunteering, learning at home, and decision making; (b) communicating is more effective than volunteering and decision making; and (c) decision making is more effective than collaborating with the community. A 2 x 3 ANOVA was calculated to test the hypotheses and determine any significance of means between gender, number of years teaching, and each of the six types of parental involvement. The study results are consistent throughout the research study, that no significant difference parental involvement types was found based on gender or number of years of teaching in the high school. Recommendations for future research include surveying parents to determine their perceptions, and surveying teachers at the elementary and middle school levels. In addition consideration should be given to using a qualitative research approach to gain further depth in the teachers’ perspectives.

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vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to acknowledge Dr. Carole Freehan for her guidance and support during this Doctoral study. Her guidance and patience has reassured me pushed me in the right direction. Her thorough feedback has been invaluable during this process. I would like to acknowledge Dr. Benjie Santiago for pushing me to complete this study. I would like to acknowledge Dr. Carmen Garrido for her guidance with the statistical analyses. I would like to acknowledge my wife, Frances T. Ada, my mother, Josepha B. Ada and family for their support and patience during this process. I would not have finished this study without their constant support. I would like to acknowledge my colleagues who have acted as sounding boards during this study, especially Dr. Jessica Barcinas-Taylor, Dr. Joanne Nicholls, Dr. Rita Sablan, the Saipan high school principals and vice principals, and the State Board of the CNMI Public School System for their support and understanding with this process.

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vii DEDICATION I would like to dedicate my Doctoral study to my family: my wife, Frances T. Ada, my children, my parents, and my extended family who have supported me, encouraged me and tolerated me through this process. First, I would like to dedicate this study to my children. I hope that one day you will be inspired to reach your goals, no matter how difficult they may seem. Completing this has taken a lot of time and energy which I would have rather devoted to you but I hope that you will see that all that I do is ultimately because of and for you. You are the inspiration behind the motivation to achieve my dreams and goals. I would like to dedicate this study to my wife. Your love, support, tolerance, and patience have helped me overcome many hurdles along the way. Without you, I would have never achieved this goal. I would like to dedicate this study to my parents. Mom, you have always believed in me to drive and be successful. You have been the role model of hard work and perseverance. Dad, though you are not here to see this success, I dedicate this work to you for your love and caring to all of us. You never abandoned us. Thank you. Finally, I would like to dedicate this study to all the special people who passed away during my doctoral study as they uttered to me to pursue my dream in their last moments in life here on earth: the late Dr. Rita Hocog-Inos, my brother, Edward aka “Bobo”, my auntie Auria, my uncle Francisco “Ton Frank” C. Ada, and Uncle Gilbert C. Ada. These family members were the backbone to my success. They believed in me. Thank you.

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viii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page TABLE OF APPENDICES ................................................................................................x CHAPTER ONE: THE PROBLEM .............................................................................. 1 Background ......................................................................................................................... 2 Need for the Study .............................................................................................................. 5 Problem Statement .............................................................................................................. 5 Research Questions ............................................................................................................. 6 Hypotheses .......................................................................................................................... 7 Educational Significance .................................................................................................... 8 Overview of the Literature .................................................................................................. 8 Family Systems Theory .................................................................................................. 9 Adolescence Stage .......................................................................................................... 9 Parental Involvement .................................................................................................... 10 Methodology ..................................................................................................................... 12 Location ........................................................................................................................ 12 Survey Questionnaire .................................................................................................... 12 Participants .................................................................................................................... 13 Method .......................................................................................................................... 13 Definition of Terms........................................................................................................... 13 Summary ........................................................................................................................... 14 CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE ...................................................... 16 Family Systems Theory .................................................................................................... 16 History of the Family Process Movement .................................................................... 17 Ecological Systems Theory of Human Development ................................................... 25 Adolescence .................................................................................................................. 27 Education .......................................................................................................................... 30 School Environment...................................................................................................... 30 Parent Involvement in Education .................................................................................. 31 Governmental Policies ...................................................................................................... 49 Parent Rights and Legislation ....................................................................................... 49 Title 1 of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act .............................................. 50 The Mariana Islands and the Public School System ..................................................... 53 Summary ........................................................................................................................... 54

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ix CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY .................................................................... 56 Research Questions and Hypotheses ................................................................................ 57 Methodological Design and Rationale .............................................................................. 59 Sampling, Consent, and Confidentiality ........................................................................... 60 Instrumentation ................................................................................................................. 61 Data Analysis .................................................................................................................... 62 Reliability and Validity ..................................................................................................... 65 Data Security and Sample Protection ............................................................................... 66 Limitations and Delimitations ........................................................................................... 67 Researcher Bias ................................................................................................................. 68 Summary ........................................................................................................................... 68 CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS ........................................... 70 Research Questions and Hypotheses ................................................................................ 71 Teacher Demographics ..................................................................................................... 73 Research Question 1 ......................................................................................................... 74 Hypothesis 1.................................................................................................................. 74 Summary of Hypothesis 1 ............................................................................................. 78 Research Question 2 ......................................................................................................... 79 Hypotheses .................................................................................................................... 79 Results for Type of Parent Involvement ....................................................................... 80 Summary of Hypotheses 2, 3 and 4 .............................................................................. 84 Chapter Summary ............................................................................................................. 85 CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...................................................................................... 87 Procedure .......................................................................................................................... 89 Discussion ......................................................................................................................... 89 Implications for Practice ................................................................................................... 91 Recommendations for Future Research ............................................................................ 95 Summary ........................................................................................................................... 96 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................ 99

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1 CHAPTER ONE: THE PROBLEM Parents have at least as much impact on their children’s academic success as teachers do (Jackson & Landsmann, 2009). Stouffer (1992) claims that as students grow older, parent involvement in education drops and often occurs less frequently in secondary schools than in elementary schools. Patrikakou (2004) identifies that some of the factors that contribute to this decline are attributed to the complex structure of middle and high schools, the challenging curricula that can be intimidating to parents, and fewer school outreach efforts to involve parents. Cotton and Wikelund (2001) agree that parents whose children attend secondary schools generally become less involved as children grow older because schools are bigger and farther from home, the curriculum is more sophisticated, each student has several teachers, older students are more likely to be employed, and students are beginning to establish some sense of separation and independence from their parents. This study investigated the perceptions of teachers concerning parental involvement in three high schools of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) Public School System, grades nine through 12. This quantitative study surveyed secondary teachers as a method of gathering data using a survey instrument based on Epstein’s (2009) six proposed types of family involvement in the schools: Parenting, Communicating, Volunteering, Learning at Home, Decision Making, and Collaborating with the Community. The researcher used Epstein’s categories to identify the types of family involvement from the teachers’ responses.

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2 Background Cotton and Wikelund (2001), Henderson and Mapp (2002), and Henderson, Mapp, Johnson, and Davies (2007), all agree that the greater the parental involvement in their children’s education, the greater the student learning. Anderson and Minke (2007) note that incidences associated with positive student learning outcomes include higher grade point averages and increased achievement in reading, writing, and mathematics (p. 6). Other positive student outcomes of parental involvement include lower dropout rates, fewer retentions in grade level, increased self-regulating behavior, and higher levels of social skills (Anderson & Minke, 2007). The U.S. Department of Education (2004) parental involvement legislation has detailed the following: The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB)-Elementary and Secondary Educational Act 1965 (ESEA) congressional act . . . recognizes the importance of parental involvement, as noted in Title I Part A, also known as Education for Disadvantaged Grants to Local Education Agencies, which suggests that parental involvement in a child’s education is essential. (p. 1) Epstein (2005) put into action the partnership schools and the Comprehensive School Reform model. The Comprehensive School Reform model grew from the National Network of Partnership Schools at Johns Hopkins University, which assists states, districts, and schools to improve family and community involvement as one component of any school reform program (Epstein, 2005, p. 152). The National Parent Teacher Association foundation has adopted Epstein’s standards for family-school partnerships through research at the Center on School, Family and Community at Johns Hopkins University (National Parent Teacher Association, 2010).

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3 For this study, the parental involvement standards framework developed by Epstein included all the elements mentioned above. Epstein (2009) identifies six important types of cooperation among families, schools, and other community organizations that support and strengthen community involvement. This framework allows families and communities not only to promote a welcoming place at school, but also to help students succeed at high levels (Epstein, 2009, p. 57). The framework for the six types of parent and community involvement includes: (a) parenting, (b) communicating, (c) volunteering, (d) learning at home, (e) decision making, and (f) collaborating with the community (Epstein, 2009). Epstein’s (2009) first-proposed type of parental involvement is that of parenting in which parenting skills are promoted and supported and the school helps all families establish home environments to support children as students. Epstein (2009) claims that the focus of activities in this framework illustrates how schools are working together to help understand child and adolescent development. The second area established by Epstein (2009) is communication. Communication is defined as a regular two-way meaningful exchange of information about school programs and children’s progress between home and school (Epstein, 2009). Schools can use communication to support parent involvement by providing translators or interpreters to families who do not speak English if needed (Epstein, 2009). Epstein’s third standard is volunteering which is defined as mobilizing parents and others who can share their time and talents to support the school, teachers, and school activities at the school or other locations (Epstein, 2009). To illustrate volunteering,

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4 Epstein (2009) suggests that parents volunteer by contributing to students’ career awareness and understanding of how different jobs use school skills. Volunteer activities also include attending school performances, sports activities, assemblies, celebrations, and other school events (Epstein, 2009). Learning at home comprises Epstein’s fourth area of parental involvement: activities to guide parents in how to help children academically (Epstein, 2009). These activities provide families with information about the academic work from their class, helping children with homework, and other curriculum-related activities (Epstein, 2009). Facilitating such parental learning also increases student and parent interest in choosing courses, summer programs, and planning for postsecondary education (Epstein, 2009). Epstein’s (2009) fifth area of parental involvement is decision making. Decision making enables families to participate in decisions about school programs that are good for all children, and encourages parents to become parent representatives and to be active in school council, school improvement team, Parent Teacher Association/Parent Teacher Organization, and other special project committees (Epstein, 2009). This framework increases parents’ voice in school processes that include teachers on projects to develop and improve school and student success (Epstein, 2009). The sixth and final standard proposed as necessary by Epstein (2009) is collaborating with community. Community resources are used to strengthen schools, families, and student learning (Epstein, 2009). When developing the capacity to meet the collaborating with community standard, the school identifies and integrates resources and services from the community, organizations, agencies, and individuals (Epstein, 2009).

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5 Need for the Study Henderson and Mapp (2002) report that students with families who are engaged in the schooling process are more likely to score higher on tests, earn higher grades, attend school regularly, have better social skills, adapt well to school, graduate from high school, and pursue postsecondary education regardless of their income level. However, Simon (2000) states that although more parental involvement occurs in the elementary and middle school levels, less is known about family involvement in high schools or secondary schools. This researcher could find only a limited number of studies focusing on parent involvement at the high school level and what might encourage improved levels of involvement. No formal research has been conducted on exploring teachers’ perception of parental involvement in Saipan public high schools, making such research a necessity in the pursuit of improving student performance in CNMI high schools. Problem Statement Stouffer (1992), LaBahn (1995), and Patrikakou (2004) concur that parental involvement declines as children progress through school, resulting in less involvement in secondary schools when compared with elementary schools. Patrikakou (2004) explains that when students reach the adolescence stage, they encounter physical, cognitive, and emotional changes. Furthermore, increasing academic demands and complex school structure adds more stress to the circumstance (Patrikakou, 2004). Cotton and Wikelund (2001) also express that the effectiveness of parent involvement with older students often focuses on different forms of participation, such as monitoring

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6 homework, helping students make postsecondary plans, and selecting courses. Cotton and Wikelund (2001) suggest that other forms of parental participation include the “standby” functions, such as regular home-school communication about students’ progress and parent attendance at school-sponsored activities. Moreover, Anderson and Minke (2007) state that different definitions of parental involvement are not recognized and miscommunication can occur leading to teachers blaming families for their child’s difficulties and parents feeling unappreciated for their efforts. Patrikakou (2004) elaborates that empowered parents can inspire their teens to do better at school and in life. Middle and high school teachers frequently report that they only communicate with families when students are in trouble (Epstein, 2008). No formal research has been uncovered on exploring teachers’ perception of parental involvement in the Saipan public high schools, making such research a necessity in the pursuit of improving student performance in Saipan high schools. Research Questions The research questions that will guide the data collection and analysis are: 1. According to Epstein’s framework of six types of parent involvement, how do teachers rate the types of parent involvement activities in effectiveness for student academic success in the Saipan public high schools?

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7 2. Is there a significant difference between gender and years of experience as a high school teacher, and the perceptions of parent involvement within the high school teacher population? Hypotheses The null and alternative hypotheses that were tested in this study are: H01: There is no significant difference in mean scores on the effectiveness of the six types of parental involvement as reported by Saipan public high school teachers. Ha1: There is significant difference in mean scores on the effectiveness of the six types of parental involvement as reported by Saipan public high school teachers. The null and alternative hypotheses tested for the two-way ANOVA are: For each type of parent involvement: H02: There is no significant effect in teacher perceptions of parent involvement based on gender in the three high schools on Saipan. Ha2: There is a significant effect in teacher perceptions of parent involvement based on gender in the three high schools on Saipan. Ho3: There is no significant effect in teacher perceptions of parent involvement based on years of teaching experience in the three high schools on Saipan. Ha3: There is a significant effect in teacher perceptions of parent involvement based on years of teaching experience in the three high schools on Saipan.

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8 Ho4: There is no significant interaction effect of gender and years of teaching experience on teacher perceptions of parent involvement in the three high schools on Saipan. Ha4: There is a significant interaction effect of gender and years of teaching experience on teacher perceptions of parent involvement in the three high schools on Saipan. Educational Significance The significance of this study is important in several ways: First, understanding relationships among teachers and parents may help reveal meaningful parent activities that include all parents. Second, decisions confronting all secondary schools concerning parental involvement may be included in a future home-school partnership action plan adopted by the state parent team in CNMI. Third, LaBahn (1995) claims that although researchers may have studied parental involvement in the secondary schools, their findings may have been overgeneralized to all organizations or locations. This study focused specifically on the three public high schools on Saipan in the CNMI. Overview of the Literature The literature review discussion begins with the sociology discipline of the family systems theory and the research related to adolescence development. Next, the education frame will review parental involvement in education from kindergarten to secondary level with the emphasis of secondary education and Epstein’s model of the six types of

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9 parental involvement. The educational frame of the literature review will review teacher perceptions of parent involvement and barriers to parent involvement in schools. Family Systems Theory Understanding the systems theory of families and school institutions is important when exploring parental involvement and its effect (McEachron-Hirsch, 1993). McEachron-Hirsch (1993) reports that families and school are the two most important social systems in a child’s life from childhood to adolescence, adding that the family’s influence on a child is more personal and pervasive than the school system. The family system and a school system are both organizational structures composed of interdependent parts that have a ripple effect on each other: The roles and functions of the school institution overlap with the family institution (McEachron-Hirsch, 1993). McEachron-Hirsch (1993) also claims that both systems remain separate and distinct, but the awareness of the systems theory will be critical in attempting to understand the interaction between the home and school. Adolescence Stage Berk (2005) defines adolescence as the transition between childhood and emerging adulthood; both biological and social forces contribute to adolescent psychological change. Biological changes, found in all primates, accompany social expectations such as giving up childish behaviors, taking on greater responsibility, and developing new interpersonal relationships (Berk, 2005). Berk (2005) states that

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10 researchers usually divide the adolescence phase into three phases: Early adolescence ranges from 11 to 12 to 14 years, a period of rapid pubertal change. Middle adolescence, from 14 to 16 years, is when pubertal changes are nearly complete. Late adolescence, from 16 to 18 years, is when the young person achieves full adult appearance and faces more complete assumption of adult roles. (p. 217) Berk (2005) claims that understanding this human development phase stemmed from major theorists--Darwin’s theory of evolution and Sigmund Freud’s claim of adolescence as the genital stage (p. 516). However, Berk asserts that the most influential theorist was G. Stanley Hall, who described adolescence as the phase of turbulent growth that resembles the period in which human beings evolved from savages into civilized beings. Chapter Two examines the adolescent stage of social, biological, motor development, brain development, pubertal change, cultural influences, and emotional and physical transition to adulthood. Chen and Gregory (2010) believe that growing social pressures, increased academic responsibility, and a heightened desire for autonomy make adolescence a developmentally challenging period. With parental involvement in education more emphasis will be placed on the parent-teen relationship and its effect (Berk, 2005). Parental Involvement Lyons, Robbins, and Smith (1983) report that during the last 15 years, parent involvement has developed into a vital part of public education. Henderson et al. (2007) emphasize that families who are involved in their children’s learning have a positive

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11 impact on student achievement. Deslandes and Bertrand’s (2005) research on parental involvement indicates that parents believe that they have more influence over their children’s education when their children are in the elementary grades. Chen and Gregory (2010) present that although decades of research claim a positive association between parental involvement and elementary students, far less is known about the effects of parental involvement on adolescent behaviors, classroom engagement, and the quality of relationships with their teachers (p. 53). Bronfenbrenner (1977) describes the ecological systems theory as multiple levels of influence on development at the home and school, where both combine forces to affect the growth of the individual (p. 525). Epstein (2009) adds a theory called overlapping spheres of influence in which development takes place separately (p. 10). Within the spheres of influence, two models are presented--the external model and the internal model (Epstein, 2009, p. 10). The external model of overlapping spheres of influence recognizes three major contexts: the family, the school, and the community where students learn and grow (Epstein, 2009). The internal model shows the pattern of influence at the institutional level, for example, a school event when a parent and teacher meet in conference or talk over the phone (Epstein, 2009). The model of school, family, and community partnerships locates the student at the center; thus, family and community partnership are crucial for the success of the student and school (Epstein, 2009).

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12 Methodology Location The Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) is located in the Western Pacific just north of the equator, more distinctly known as Northern Mariana Islands. The island chain consists of 15 small volcanic isles, 14 of which constitute the CNMI with the southern-most island, Guam, as a separate U.S. territory. The three main islands within the CNMI are Saipan, Tinian, and Rota, with Saipan being the capital and most populated island (Flood, Cunningham, & Adams, 2001). The CNMI Public School System consists of 20 campuses for children from the ages of 6 to 18. Of these 20 campuses, 12 are elementary schools, three are junior high schools, and five are senior high schools. Three high schools are located on Saipan, one in Tinian, and one in Rota. This research was focused in three public high schools on Saipan. Survey Questionnaire The survey to be used in this proposed study will be adapted, with permission, from the National Network of Partnership School at Johns Hopkins University and the Mid Continent Regional Educational Lab. The researcher chose the survey questionnaire because it based on the six involvement practices of Epstein’s framework. Thus, the high school questionnaire can be altered from the original survey to fit the CNMI public school system.

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13 Participants The teacher participants were high school teachers from the three public high schools on Saipan. All teachers in the study were certified staff members of the school. Approximately 107 teachers from the three public high schools were invited to participate in the study. Method A quantitative research study was conducted using a survey questionnaire. The institutional review board protocol was submitted to the Argosy University Institutional Review Board. Upon full acceptance of the study by the Institutional Review Board, the researcher placed the letter of introduction in the teacher’s boxes. The CNMI Public School System is equipped with computer labs with interconnectivity and the survey request was made through a web-based instrument, SurveyMonkey. The survey request was sent to teachers in their respective schools. Surveys were conducted through e-mail invitations and an online survey, which is the preferred method for conducting the research. All teachers were encouraged to participate in the survey, but they were able to exit without any repercussions if they chose not to participate. The researcher analyzed the data using the statistics program SPSS. A descriptive statistic report was generated and the findings analyzed. Definition of Terms The following terms are defined for the purposes of this research study:

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14 Communication: Communication is described between home and school as a regular, two-way, and meaningful exchange of information about school programs and children’s progress (Epstein, 2009). Local education agency: A local education agency is a local board of education or public facility that may legally function to serve public elementary and secondary schools (U.S. Department of Education, 2004). Parent involvement: Parent involvement refers to older individuals or other family members who take a special interest and help an adolescent develop and understand life values and to build confidence (Wheeler, 1992). State education agency: In this study, a state education agency is a state board or public agency that legally serves all public school institutions in a state and provides information, resources, and technical assistance on educational matters to the school and the residents (U.S. Department of Education, 2004). In the CNMI the local education agency is also the state education agency. Summary Chapter Two review of literature discusses the family social systems theory, the human development of adolescence, the educational research on parental involvement, Epstein’s model of parental involvement, the current research in elementary and secondary level, the historical governmental policies and current parental rights legislation. Chapter Three explains the methodology of the online survey research

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16 CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE The purpose of this study was to examine the perceptions of teachers concerning parental involvement between families and the schools. This study is framed by three disciplines--sociology, education, and government. The literature review will begin with the sociology discipline with a discussion of the family systems theory and the research related to adolescence development. Next, the education frame will review Epstein’s model of the six types of parental involvement and discuss parental involvement in education from kindergarten to secondary level with the emphasis of secondary education. The educational frame of the literature review will review teacher perceptions of parent involvement and barriers to parent involvement in schools. In concluding this literature review, the third section will discuss governmental policies that have been put into place mandating schools to include parental involvement in the education of their families and students. Family Systems Theory Understanding the concept of systems has become the center of attention in social science research (Broderick, 1993). “Every generation has its own interpretation of the systems laws of nature and the nature of law that dates back to Aristotle’s famous motto--‘the whole is more than the sum of parts’ ” (Broderick, 1993, p. 7). Broderick (1993) also pays tribute to St. Paul, the missionary who expanded the systems concept from the religious perspective that the church organization is also made up of many members who are dependent on each other. Senge’s (1990) view of organizations is as a whole where

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17 parts do not function independently rather, the parts are interactive and the interrelationships among key functions that conduct pattern of changes and how those change influences other parts of the system. Systems theory is frequently recognized with cybernetics and control theory (Bertalanffy, 1968, p. 17). Constantine (1986) defines any system as a bounded set of interrelated elements exhibiting coherent behavior as a trait. Moraine (2001) adds that systems are considered systems because they are made up of interrelated elements exhibiting coherent behaviors, having regular interactions--they are interdependent on one another. Broderick (1993) discusses four interwoven frameworks to obtain a better understanding of the foundation of family systems theory. To understand the history of the family process movement, Broderick (1993) terms the four interweaving major concepts as: (a) structural functionalism, (b) inductive empiricism, (c) general systems theory, and (d) family relations (p. 6). History of the Family Process Movement Structural functionalism. The first historical concept theory is structural functionalism whose core has been one of the most influential paradigms in social anthropology and sociology for 30 years (Broderick, 1993, p. 6). Broderick (1993) states that the focus of the systems theory of the structural functionalists incorporates many features that illustrate the characteristics that require parts for a system to function such as interdependence, internal and external forces, economic function, hierarchical arrangement, political components, loyalty, and goals (p. 14). The interdependence of

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18 the parts of the system as a system is, “the whole was greater than the sum of its parts” (Broderick, 1993, p. 14). Bolman and Deal (2003) claim that the concept of structural forms and functions is a blueprint for formal expectations and exchanges between internal players such as executives, managers, and employees, and external constituencies such as customers and clients. Economic functions from the global community, competition, technology, customer expectations, the money market, and workforce dynamics have made organizations worldwide rethink structural patterns (Bolman & Deal, 2003, p. 47). Hierarchical arrangements employ variety of methods to establish individual and group efforts toward corporate-wide goals: vertically through the formal chain of command and laterally through meetings, committees, coordinating roles, or network structures (Bolman & Deal, 2003, p. 46). Bolman and Deal (2003) allege that strategy and goals shape structure but the process is complex and subtle because schools, for example, are criticized if structure does not agree with the goal of scholastic achievement (p. 62). Inductive empiricism. Inductive empiricism is the second concept of the family process movement (Broderick, 1993, p. 15). Generating theory and producing social explanation is the ultimate goal of all social scientists (Broderick, 1993). Sociologists Samuel Stouffer and Talcott Parsons attempted to generate an all-inclusive theory of social actions that would explain social, familial patterns of behavior (Broderick, 1993, p. 15). During World War II, Stouffer and his collaborators were employed by the Research Branch of U. S. Army to study the adjusted life of enlisted men in the army life

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19 (Broderick, 1993, p. 15). The final product of Stouffer’s research was a four-volume document that redefined the aspirations of the discipline and the launching of the new era in the social sciences (Broderick, 1993, p. 15). In composing the research, Stouffer applied the scientific model that became the guiding framework: paying close attention to validity, reliability formulation of theories, controlled experiments, dependent and outcome variables, and replication of experiments (Broderick, 1993, p. 15). The ultimate goal was to generate theory with the hope that inductive, grounded in empirical data to confirm or disconfirm the research study is applicable (Broderick, 1993, p. 16). As a result of the research study, Stouffer’s contribution to measurement and prediction in research is being used in social psychology and sociology today (Broderick, 1993). In 1970s, a family of scholars under the leadership of Burr, Hill, Nye, and Reiss agreed to develop a more systematic, integrated, and comprehensive midrange theory about the family (Broderick, 1993, p. 17). Empirical propositions pertaining to family issues were being analyzed (Broderick, 1993, p. 17). Further, the family scholars wanted to know if certain socially significant dependent and independent family variables by identifying what influences them (Broderick, 1993, p. 17). The model of identifying variables used is the positivistic (i.e., all conclusions were rooted in research evidence), linear (i.e., the causes all ran in one direction, from the independent to dependent variables), static (i.e., the relationships among variables were all frozen in time), and deterministic (i.e., it was assumed that if it were possible to measure all of the pertinent independent variables without measurement or sampling error, then it would be possible to account for all of the variance in the dependent variable). (Broderick, 1993, p. 17)

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20 Certain recurring patterns of variables would appear in many models, which will provide unifying links between the mini-theories (Broderick, 1993, p. 18). The systematic approach to families is the theoretical approach to social relationships (Broderick, 1993, p. 20). Systems theory focuses on the rules of variable relationships among units (Broderick, 1993, p. 21). General systems theory. The third concept of the family process movement is general systems theory (Broderick, 1993). Biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy (1968) identifies organizations as living things. Further, von Bertalanffy (1968) classified the systems theory with hierarchical model of systems type and illustrates how the universe as hierarchy from particles to atomic nuclei, to atoms, molecules, high-molecule compounds, to wealth of structures between molecules and cells to organisms and on to supra-individual organizations. One schematic of hierarchy order is found in “structures,” which describe the order of parts and “functions,” which describe the order of process (Bertalanffy, 1968, p. 27). Bertalanffy (1968) claims that the study of parts and processes in isolation is necessary to solve the cause of the problems found in the organization. Further, studying interaction of parts and the behavior of parts in isolation or within the whole is essential (Bertalanffy, 1968). Senge (1990) outlines a systems-thinking approach to organizations and proposes that the organization must be viewed as a whole. Interrelationships among key functions are important and any changes in one part of the system require special attention to determine how those changes influence other parts of the system (Senge, 1990). Bertalanffy (1968) claims that laws of

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21 organization and organizational forces are not known in the subatomic and supermolecular domain. Some concepts, models, and principles of general systems theory such as hierarchic order, progressive differentiation, and feedback are broadly applicable to psychological and socio-cultural systems (Bertalanffy, 1968, p. 28). Schwab, Gray-Ice, and Prentice (2000) note that in the 19th century, the term system was rarely applied to a family and the authors acknowledge that von Bertalanffy’s introduction of General Systems Theory was instrumental in establishing the groundwork for a systems approach to the study of family (p. 96). Family relations. Broderick (1993) notes that families are a subset of social systems and are structured by a unique set of intergender and intergenerational relationships, although no precise definition for families has been established because families are made up differently. Broderick (1993) defines family as “two or more persons sharing a common residence and related by blood, adoption, or marriage: many varieties of family-like systems exist: two characteristics differentiate membership--structure and the unique quality of family relationships” (p. 4). Broderick (1993) illustrates the family as a system: each individual family system is shaped by its own particular features such as size, complexity, age, gender, and its socio-cultural and historic position in the larger environment. More recently, Berk (1993) and Moraine (2001) assert that the components of family systems theories have characteristics of an open, ongoing, goal seeking, and self-regulating social system;

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22 specifically, the family system theories shares the features of all other systems from the political dimension. Broderick (1993, p. 37) agrees with von Bertalanffy (1969, p. 157) that any modern investigation of metabolism and growth has to take into account that living organisms as well as its components are open systems--they maintain themselves in a continuous exchange of matter with environment. In describing a system as open is not to say that “no boundaries exist between itself and its environment as energy, matter, and information flow back and forth across the barrier” (Broderick, 1993, p. 37). The flow is that the input is information received from the environment and the output is information given back to the environment (Broderick, 1993). Bertalanffy (1969) describes an open system as an exchange of matter with its environment through import and export. If a family is permeable and has vague boundaries, the family is considered open--allowing elements and situations outside the family to influence the family (Moraine, 2001). A closed boundary system isolates the family members from the environment and seems self-contained, although no family system is completely closed or open (Moraine, 2001). Families, like other social systems, are goal seeking: families pursue goals and pursue a path toward a goal (Broderick, 1993). Goals in families are complexly organized (Broderick, 1993). According to the systems principle, family rules must be hierarchically structured with short-term immediate goals at the bottom of the pyramid and overarching life objectives at the top (Broderick, 1993). The political map dimension creates players of “who is in the game, how much power and influence they have on others, and what each player wants” (Bolman & Deal, 2003, p. 208). The political

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23 influence develops “relationships, communication, and negotiation” (Bolman & Deal, 2003, p. 210). From the cultural perspective, anthropologists Radcliff-Brown (1922, 1952) and Malinowski (1922) studied tribal societies that were small and self-contained concluding that customs, practices, and beliefs of such societies were functional for that particular society and that in each society the whole system of folkways fit together so that each part is needed to maintain its shape (Broderick, 1993). The family system has a subsystem entitled the cultural system that has the elements of the family social function (Broderick, 1993). Thus, family priorities may shift as their circumstances change (Broderick, 1993). Families are a self-regulating system where the decision-making process is initiated from three sources: (a) information of the world outside, which is the family context monitoring function; (b) information recall from the past and recombination, which is the family archival information; and (c) information about itself and its parts which is the family status monitoring function (Broderick, 1993). The interactions among these three sources of information are continuous and circular with each other (Broderick, 1993). The social system and the environment are two variables that Durkheim (1951) claims to shape the individual. Berman (1964) stresses the importance of the family in shaping the children: early life experiences of the child set the foundation for the future behavior and development of the child’s attitudes, values, and lifestyle. Trojanowicz (1978) concurs that theorists dating from Freudian psychology to sociologists all agree

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24 that the family is the first and most important social environment that the child is attached to and may have an impact on how the child behaves in social institutions. If the family does not help the child adjust to a new environment, deal with his or her emotions, or handle problems in a socially acceptable manner, the child loses psychological and social support (Berman, 1964). Trojanowicz (1978) explains that other theorists agree that early childhood experiences with the parent-child, child rearing process, and family relationship are factors that determine how the child will adapt to outside environment. When parents emphasize positive community norms and values to the child, the parents become effective in socializing their children; on the other hand, if parents do not address positive community norms and values, the children often become troublesome with community institutions (Trojanowicz, 1978). Change in the family pattern becomes a challenge to the schools (Henderson, Mapp, Johnson, & Davies, 2007). One in two marriages ends in divorce and some parents go on to remarry (de Toledo & Brown, 1995). The make-up of parenting has changed to single mothers, single fathers, stepmothers, stepfathers, newly arrived immigrants, the affluent, the middle class, and poverty-level parents (Canter & Canter, 1991). Oftentimes, grandparents are the ones to raise children because the children need someone to raise them (de Toledo & Brown, 1995). According to the 2000 Census, over 4 million children are living with grandparents and that one-fourth of these grandparents have sole responsibility for the children and nearly half of low-income children, those in the bottom 20 percent live with only one parent and nearly half move every year. (Henderson et al., 2007, p. 7)

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25 Ecological Systems Theory of Human Development Bronfenbrenner’s (1977) theory of ecological environment defines layers of the environmental setting that affect a child’s development claiming that the understanding of human development demands the study of the biology and the environmental structure of the child because changes or conflict in any one layer will ripple throughout the other layers. Berk (2000) confirms that the multiple levels of the surrounding environment of a developing child are affected within the complex system of relationships at multiple levels. Although the layers overlap each other, Bronfenbrenner (1977) notes that the levels of environment are structurally nested. More recently, Epstein’s (2009) theory that social organizations connect with each other echoes Bronfenbrenner’s theory. Bronfenbrenner’s structure of environment functions at four levels: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and the macrosystem. The first level, the microsystem, is defined as the relation between the developing person and the environment--the immediate surroundings (Berk, 2000; Bronfenbrenner, 1977). Bronfenbrenner (1977) explains that the structures in the microsystem include family, school, neighborhood, or childcare environment. Berk (2000) asserts that the environmental setting has a bidirectional influence on the child, that is, if a child is friendly and attentive, the child is more likely to have been treated by friendly parents or adults in his or her immediate environment. This bidirectional influence has the strongest and greatest impact on the child’s development (Bronfenbrenner, 1977). The second level, the mesosystem, is the connected structure of the child’s microsystem (Bronfenbrenner, 1977). This level typically encompasses interactions

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26 among social groups such as family, school, church, camp, workplace, and peer group; the connection is usually between the child, the child’s teacher, and his or her parents (Bronfenbrenner, 1977). Epstein and Sanders (2000) note that a child’s academic progress depends on the parent involvement in school life where academic learning is passed into the home. Epstein (2009) asserts that the basic components of school, family, and community partnership are the framework of this mesosystem. The third level, the exosystem, as Bronfenbrenner (1977) explains, is an extension of the mesosystem specifying social structures that are formal and informal institutions of the society. Berk (2000) illustrates that the parents’ workplace, religious institutions, or community-based family resources for children’s wellbeing are important influences on children’s development. Examples of the exosystem level are the neighborhood, the mass media, local, state, and national government, communication and transportation facilities, and informal social networks (Bronfenbrenner, 1977). Berk (2000) notes formal organizations provide annual and sick leave to help parents rear children; informal organizations are the parents’ social networks of friends and extended family members. According to Bronfenbrenner (1977), macrosystem refers to the institutional patterns of the cultural values, laws, and the subcultures such as economic, social, educational, and political systems of the microsystems, mesosystems, and exosystems. Berk (2000) points out that this layer supports the children’s health benefits and childcare. Bronfenbrenner (1977) states that the ecological systems theory focuses on the context of the child’s environment that is ever changing and involves every one of the

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27 settings. Development is seen as instigated by events, that is, biological change from early years through childhood and adolescence (Bronfenbrenner, 1977). The systems theory gives a glimpse of how the concepts of system historically evolved and how the elements in the system are interrelated and interdependent of each other. The Family Systems theory presents itself from a sociological perspective. Further, Bronfenbrenner’s (1977) theory of ecological system gives insights as to how the subsystems overlap. Environment plays a critical role in the developmental stages of the child from the home to the school environment (Bronfenbrenner, 1977). The following segment discusses the adolescence stage as the topic relates to parental involvement in the secondary level. Adolescence Adolescence is the transition between childhood and adulthood (Berk, 2000). The beginning of adolescence is marked by puberty, biological events, and sexual maturity (Berk, 2000). Adolescence ranges from 11 to 18 years and the changes of puberty are dramatic; the rate of changes in the body differs for girls and boys; girls’ body maturation is two years earlier than boys (Berk, 2000). Trojanowicz (1978) points out that the teenage years are turbulent times because youth are coping with the struggle of dependence versus independence--trying to develop a self-concept and determine goals in life. With hormones changing, most 11 to 18 year olds are increasingly worried about popularity with peers (Adkins, 2002). At this age peer pressure is more influential than

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28 parental authority: adolescents want their own space at this age and they spend more time with friends and less time with the family (Adkins, 2002). Eric Erikson (1950) expands Freud’s psychosexual development that each developmental stage is a positive force where skills are acquired and attitude all make up an individual. Erikson’s psychosocial stages are basic trust versus mistrust, autonomy versus shame and doubt, initiate versus guilt, identity versus inferiority, identity versus identity confusion, intimacy versus isolation, general activity versus stagnation, and integrity versus despair (Berk, 2000). The stage of identity versus inferiority develops at school and the capacity for children to work and cooperate with others (Berk, 2000, p. 17). Identity versus identity confusion is the adolescent stage that tries to explore the identity of--“who am I and what is my place in society” leading to a lasting personal identity (Berk, 2000, p. 17). Subsequently, the cognitive development work of Jean Piaget (1930) describes the child’s brain development as that of the formal operational stage that begins around 11 years of age. The formal operational stage is when adolescents and adults develop complex thought and abstract reasoning (Berk, 2000). Piaget’s assumption was that discovery learning is the best way to teach and the maturity of thinking depends on the familiarity of the task (Berk, 2000). More recently, Bandura (1977) emphasizes that imitation or observational learning is a powerful source of development. The theory of cognition has supported Bandura’s (1992, 2001) theory that children’s ability to listen and remember general rules

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29 is selective. Moreover, at this formal operational stage, children become more selective in what they imitate (Berk, 2000, p. 19). In addition to all the biological and cognitive changes during the adolescence stage, Irvin, Meltzer, and Dukes (2007) stress that adolescence literacy has reached a level of crisis. According to the Alliance for Excellent Education, an estimated 8 million middle and high school students read below their grade level (Joftus, 2002). By the time high school graduates get to college, these incoming freshmen need remedial classes in reading and writing (Irvin et al., 2007). The College Board (2004) notes that businesses have spent $3 billion in providing writing classes to employees. In essence, high school students in the United States are leaving high school unprepared to read, write, speak, listen, and think at a level for college or other careers (Irvin et al., 2007). A discussion about the system theory and how the theory applies in the family has been addressed. The discussion of family systems theory presented its characteristics and features such as open, ongoing, goal seeking, and self-regulating. The ecological theory of environment gave insights as to how the environment influences the child’s development. Different layers of environmental setting were discussed to show how changes in the family affect child development. Because this research is on the secondary level, attention to the second framework of education, education setting, and how these topics relate to parental involvement will be addressed in the next section. Furthermore, Epstein’s theory of overlapping sphere of the family, the school, and the community involvement will also be discussed.

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30 Education School Environment Berk (2000) defines a school setting as a formal institution to pass on knowledge and skills so children can become productive citizens. Schools are complex social systems that have different infrastructure, sizes, spaces, philosophies in education, and demographics (Berk, 2000). Regular parent-school contact support is needed at all ages: students whose parents are involved in school activities and attend parent-teacher conferences show better academic achievement (Berk, 2000). When these efforts lead to cultures of good parenting and teaching, they deliver an extra boost to children’s well-being (Berk, 2000). Hudley and Gottfried (2008) claim that regulated social settings such as the school have demonstrated academic motivation and school success. Gewertz (2008) argues that parents whose children attend high-performing schools report that their schools do a better job in reaching out to them than parents of low- performing schools. In a survey study of 1,006 parents of current and recent high school students, parents identified their schools as low, moderate, or high performing from the school’s data of graduates who went to college (Gewertz, 2008). More than 90% of African-American and Hispanic parents noted the high importance of getting an education that leads to college compared with 78% of white parents (Gewertz, 2008). Parents who rated their schools as low-performing claim that the schools minimally involve parents; for example, only half of the parents in the low-performing schools report that they had good conversations with their children’s teachers compared with 70% of parents from the high-performing schools (Gewertz, 2008).

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31 Entering secondary school life is a landmark of adolescence along with changes in academic learning (Berk, 2000). Parents report that their child’s transition from middle school to high school is daunting and complicated and parents need support from educators (Gewertz, 2002). Even so, parent involvement activities such as parent-teacher contacts, quality of parent-teacher interactions, participation in educational activities at home, and participation in school activities declines over time (Izzo, Weissberg, Kasprow, & Fendrich, 1999) because some parents are faced with multiple needs and problems of adolescence, the school curriculum complexities of assessment and organization and increasing constraints of family time (Epstein, 2009). For some parents, priorities such as work, lack of transportation, and having to take care of other family members can become barriers leaving parents feeling distant from school life (Davis & Yang, 2005). In addition, the current teaching in schools is very different from what parents experienced when they were in school (Davis & Yang, 2005) Parent Involvement in Education Parent involvement has value because children whose parents help them at home do better at school, teachers and principals who know parents from participating in school activities treat those parents with greater respect, and parents are able to influence and make contribution to the education of their children (Lyons, Robbins, & Smith, 1983). Parents’ love, affection, support, and approval are fundamental needs of all children, thus parents are the most important people in a child’s life (Canter & Canter, 1991). In studying the value of parental involvement, Gigliotti and Brookober (1988) report that

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32 parent participation is a critical factor in determining the overall effectiveness of the schools regardless of the socioeconomic level of parents. Parents are very concerned about their children’s success in school (Epstein, 2009). Students, teachers, and parents benefit when parents are involved: family involvement contributes to student achievement and success (Henderson et al., 2007). Earning better grades, enrolling in higher level programs, higher graduation rates, and greater enrollment in postsecondary institutions are all attributed to students’ success when families are involved (Agronick, Clark, O’Donnell, & Steuve, 2009; Henderson et al., 2007; Hornby, 2000). In turn, students exhibit positive attitudes toward school when families take an active interest in what their children are learning (Henderson et al., 2007). Epstein’s model of parent involvement. Epstein (2009) theorizes that social organizations connect with each other: these frameworks are the three spheres of influence with the components of school, family, and community partnership. The external model of overlapping spheres of influence recognizes the three major contexts where learning and growing takes place--the family, the school, and the community (Epstein, 2009). The three context settings can function either apart from each other or drawn together (Epstein, 2009). The frequent interaction among the school, family, and community sends a message to students about the importance of school--working hard, thinking creatively, helping one another, and staying in school (Epstein, 2009).

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33 The internal model of overlapping spheres of influence shows where and how social interpersonal relations and patterns of influence occur between individuals at home, at school, and in the community (Epstein, 2009). This model is enacted at the institutional level--such as when the school invites all families to an event and the individual level, for instance when a parent and teacher have a conference or talk on the phone (Epstein, 2009). The student is at the center surrounded by the school, family, and community partnership (Epstein, 2009, p. 9). Epstein (2009) expands the concept of partnership to include the process when teachers and administrators create family-like schools and parents create more school-like families recognizing that each child is also a student. Epstein (2009) adds that communities, including groups of parents working together, can create school-like opportunities--events recognizing and rewarding students for good progress. Communities also create family-like settings and services to help families support their children (Epstein, 2009). Epstein (2009) defines learning communities or caring communities when schools and communities offer opportunities about programs and services that take into account the needs and realities of family life (p. 11). Thus, Epstein (2009) affirms that these terms--learning communities or caring communities--are consistent with the overlapping spheres of influences. Epstein (2009) conceptualizes parental involvement from a perspective that overlapping spheres of influence result in complex interrelationships that define six different types of parental involvement. The significance of the theoretical perspective of overlapping spheres of influence lies not only in the identification of different types of

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34 parental involvement, but also in the recognition that parents’ involvement in children’s education and family-school connections are not static (Epstein, 2009). Epstein (2009) identifies six important types of cooperation between families, schools, and other community organizations that support and strengthen community involvement. This framework allows families and communities not only to promote a welcoming place at school but also to help students succeed at high levels (Epstein, 2009). The framework for the six types of parent and community involvement includes: (a) parenting, (b) communicating, (c) volunteering, (d) learning at home, (e) decision making, and (f) collaborating with the community (Epstein, 2009, p. 32). Epstein’s framework is being used as a guide to help the action teams for partnerships at the public schools in the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI). Epstein’s (2009) first proposed type of parental involvement is that of parenting where parenting skills are promoted and supported and the school helps all families establish home environments to support children as students. The focus of activities in this framework illustrates how schools are working together to help understand child and adolescent development (Epstein, 2009). A sample activity includes assisting parents of high school students gain confidence about guiding their teens to apply to college or community college for postsecondary education and training (Epstein, 2009). The second area of parent involvement established by Epstein (2009) is communicating. Communication is defined as a regular two-way meaningful exchange of information about school programs and children’s progress between home and school (Epstein, 2009). As illustrated by Epstein (2009), an example of two-way

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35 communication between parents and teachers is the inclusion of a weekly folder from the school as a means of encouraging consistent communication from school to home and home to school. Epstein (2009) suggests that high school students lead parent-teacher conferences and focus on their work and goals in school. Nonetheless, Epstein (2009) claims that another way communication can support parent involvement is to help families who do not speak English by providing translators or interpreters as needed. Epstein’s (2009) third standard of parent involvement is entitled volunteering--intended to mobilize parents and others who can share their time and talents to support the school, teachers, and school activities at the school or other locations. To illustrate volunteering, Epstein (2009) suggests that parents volunteer by contributing to students’ career awareness and understanding of how different jobs use school skills. Epstein (2009) further elaborates that volunteer activities include attending school performances, sports activities, assemblies, celebrations, and other school events. Learning at home comprises Epstein’s (2009) fourth area of parental involvement. Learning at home activities guide parents in how to help children academically (Epstein, 2009). These activities provide families with information about the academic work from their classes, help children with homework, and other curriculum-related activities (Epstein, 2009, p. 59). Epstein (2009) illustrates learning at home as reading at home and teaching parents how to improve student reading skills and attitudes about reading. Facilitating such parental learning also increases student and parent interest in choosing courses, summer programs, and planning for postsecondary education (Epstein, 2009).

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36 Epstein’s (2009) fifth area of parental involvement is known as decision-making. Decision-making enables families to participate in decisions about school programs that are good for all children (Epstein, 2009). Decision-making encourages parents to become parent representatives and be active in such school-based organizations as school council, school improvement team, parent organizations, and other special project committees (Epstein, 2009). This framework increases parents’ voice in school processes that include teachers on projects to develop and improve school and student success (Epstein, 2009). The sixth and final standard of parent involvement proposed as necessary by Epstein (2009) is collaborating with the community. Community resources are used to strengthen schools, families, and student learning (Epstein, 2009). When developing the capacity to meet the collaborating with the community standard, the school identifies and integrates resources and services from the community, organizations, agencies, and individuals (Epstein, 2009). Developing pen pal connections to increase student writing as well as positive adult-student relationships is one-way schools exhibit collaborating with the community (Epstein, 2009). Parent involvement in elementary education. Englund, Luckner, Whaley, and Egeland (2004) investigated the relationships between mother’s level of education, mother’s quality of instruction, child’s IQ, parental expectations, parental involvement, and academic performance. The longitudinal study followed 187 first time low-income mothers and their children from birth through third grade (Englund et al., 2004, p. 724).

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37 The findings of the study show a positive and significant correlation between all the variables (Englund et al., 2004, p. 726). The high achievement of children in first grade was positively correlated with increased parental involvement in third grade (Englund et al., 2004, p. 728). In another study, a long term study of Chicago Parent Centers serving children ages three to nine, found that parents had a major impact on the children’s social and academic outcomes: over 80% of students whose parents were involved for the whole six years graduated from high school compared to 38% of students whose parents were not involved at all (Henderson et al., 2007, p. 7). Baker, Piotrikowski, and Brooks-Gunn, (1998) conducted a two-year experimental study on the Home Instruction Program for Preschool Youngsters (HIPPY). HIPPY was delivered through home visits to provide educational enrichment to poor immigrant families with four and five year olds; trained paraprofessionals modeled lessons during home visits and mothers were asked to read books and involve their preschool age children through role-play activities (Baker et al., 1998). The results of the study show that the children involved in the HIPPY program report higher test scores in reading and mathematics than the children who were not receiving the HIPPY services (Baker et al., 1998). The findings of the HIPPY study suggest that a high-quality home support program with strong parent involvement can help low-income children gain skills and their likelihood for success later in school will be improved (Baker et al., 1998). Jordan, Snow, and Porche (2000) conducted a yearlong literacy project entitled Early Access to Success in Education (EASE) in Minnesota. The project was designed to help parents develop their children’s literacy skills through parent education sessions,

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38 parent-child activities at school, and book-centered activities at home (Jordan et al., 2000). Coaching sessions were provided to parents so that parents could conduct structured activities with their children and engage their children in discussions around a book (Jordan et al., 2000). The families of 248 kindergarten students from four schools took part in the study and the findings show that students in the EASE group made greater gains in language skills than those who were not part of the EASE program (Jordan et al., 2000). The conclusions suggest when families engage in both at-school and at-home activities the children show increased student achievement (Jordan et al., 2000). Senechal and LeFevre (2002) examined the impact of early storybook exposure and parents’ report of teaching at home in influencing literacy skills and reading ability. The sample was drawn from three middle class schools in Canada with a progressive approach to education (Senechal & LeFevre, 2002). The researchers found that storybook exposure was a good predictor of children’s receptive language development while parents teaching at home predicted emergent literacy skills (Senechal & LeFevre, 2002). The researchers also determined that certain literacy skills function as a mediating variable between parents’ involvement in education at home and reading fluency (Senechal & LeFevre, 2002). Baker and Soden (1997) gathered and reviewed more than 200 research studies. The research studies addressed the importance of types of parental involvement such as: stimulating literacy and material environment, monitoring of TV viewing and homework completion, joint learning activities at home, emphasizing effort rather than ability,

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39 communicating high expectations, providing moderate levels of parent support and supervision, and promoting independence and self reliance (Baker & Soden, 1997). The research on parental involvement strongly suggests that formal schooling of children is vital for their academic success (Baker & Soden, 1997). Parent involvement in secondary education. Parental involvement studies at the secondary level are scarcer than those of primary level (Hornby, 2000). However, involving parents promotes student achievement from pre-school through secondary education (Hornby, 2000). Epstein (2008) agrees that parental involvement in the middle and high school levels results in their adolescents’ improvement with (a) higher grades in English and mathematics, (b) improvement in reading and writing skills, (c) completion of more course credits, (d) better attendance, (e) higher aspirations, (f) more complete preparation for class, and (g) reduction in behavioral problems (Epstein, 2008). Parents make a key contribution to the school by providing teachers with valuable information about their children, especially for children who have special needs (Hornby, 2000). A study by Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler (1997) found three major constructs believed to be central to parental involvement in the elementary and secondary education: (a) role construction, (b) sense of self-efficacy, and (c) parental invitations from the school. First, role construction is defined as what parents are supposed to believe and what is acceptable and what parents are supposed to do in relation to child development, child rearing, and their children’s education and progress (Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 1997, p. 19). The second major construct of parental involvement is the parent’s

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40 confidence and ability to help their children also known as sense of efficacy (Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 1997, p. 19). Sense of efficacy is high or low depending on the parents’ skills and knowledge in their effort to help their children (Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 1997). Parents with a higher sense of efficacy are able to help and assist with their children’s learning and if needed, find additional sources, thus making a positive influence on student learning and school performance (Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 1997). Conversely, parents with a low sense of efficacy are likely to avoid involvement for fear of confronting their own perceived inadequacies (Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 1997). The third major construct of parental involvement is the parents being invited by the children and the school. This sense of invitation is influential because of the schools’ authority, power, and emotional connection in the child’s life (Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 1997). The overall value of multiple invitations, opportunities, and requests presented by children and school all depend on the welcoming and proactive demand created for parent involvement (Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 1997). Anderson and Minke (2007) investigated how parents decide to be involved in children’s education on the basis of the Hoover and Dempsey (1997) model of the four parent variables: role construction, sense of efficacy, resources, and perceptions of teacher invitations. The authors surveyed elementary parents and the findings conclude that specific invitations from teachers had the largest effect on the types of parental involvement (Anderson & Minke, 2007). Specific teacher invitations had the strongest relationship with parents’ involvement behaviors and were associated relatively with the three parent involvement variables across home and school (Anderson & Minke, 2007). The perception of being

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41 invited is important, influential, and encouraging for parents (Anderson & Minke, 2007, p. 319). The sense of efficacy and level of resources were less influential than the researchers anticipated (Anderson & Minke, 2007). The authors found that sense of efficacy had a direct effect on parent involvement at home but not as much as in school (Anderson & Minke, 2007). Resources did not significantly influence the parent involvement decisions; the researchers hypothesized that resource concerns such as time, transportation, and childcare are barriers to participation (Anderson & Minke, 2007). Deslandes and Bertrand (2005) investigated the Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler’s parental involvement model: (a) relative strength of parents’ role construction, (b) parents’ self-efficacy for helping adolescence succeed in school, (c) parents’ perceptions of teacher invitations, and (d) parents’ perceptions of student invitations to become involved. Parents of adolescents in grades seven, eight, and nine were surveyed (Deslandes & Bertrand, 2005). Although the results differ for the various grade levels, parents’ perception of student invitations was the most powerful predictor of parent involvement at home models across the three grade levels. Chen and Gregory (2010) investigated parental involvement of ninth grade students predicting improvement in academic, behavioral, and relational outcomes for low achieving adolescents. The authors measured three dimensions of parental involvement--direct participation, academic encouragement, and expectations for grades and attainment (Chen & Gregory, 2010, p. 56). The study shows that students whose parents had higher expectations about grades and attainment had high grade point averages and were academically engaged by their teachers (Chen & Gregory, 2010).

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42 Also, students who report that their parents are more academically encouraging experience more care from their teachers (Chen & Gregory, 2010). Catsambis (1998) used data from a long-term study sponsored by the National Center of Education Statistics to measure the impact of six types of parental involvement. Parents who actively encourage their children to plan for and attend college are the strongest influence on 12th grade student achievement (Catsambis, 1998). The strongest effect across all family backgrounds is from parents who express high expectations by discussing college attendance, helping students prepare for college, and enrolling students in academic programs to earn credits and make high tests scores (Catsambis, 1998). Furthermore, Catsambis (1998) compared the parents’ type of involvement when the students were in 8th grade and found out that the activities in middle school have an impact on 12th grade achievement in all subjects. Thus, the author concludes that the most effective types of 12th grade parent involvement are not aimed at supervising students’ behavior, but rather are aimed at advising and guiding teens’ academic decisions (Catsambis, 1998). Jacobs and Harvey (2005) investigated differences in family factors determining academic achievement. Parents completed a questionnaire investigating their attitudes towards the school environment, their aspirations, expectations, encouragement, and interest in their child’s education (Jacobs & Harvey, 2005, p. 431). The research reveals that parental expectations of their children’s educational level made the strongest unique prediction of high achievement meaning that parents at the highest achieving schools had

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43 the highest expected level of educational achievement for their children more so than parents of students from middle and low achieving schools (Jacobs & Harvey, 2005). Ho Sui-Chu and Wilms (1996) used data from the National Educational Longitudinal Study to investigate the relationship between parental involvement, personal and family characteristics, and reading and mathematics scores. Parent involvement and reading and mathematics achievement had a moderate effect on reading (Ho Sui-Chu & Wilms, 1996). The findings provide little support for the researchers’ hypothesis that parents with low socioeconomic status are less involved in their children’s schooling than are parents with higher socioeconomic status (Ho Sui-Chu & Wilms, 1996). The four components of parental involvement identified in the study such as home discussion, home supervision, school communication, and school participation were all found to have a statistically significant relationship with academic performance (Ho Sui-Chu & Wilms, 1996, p. 132). School related activities at home had the strongest relationship with academic achievement (Ho Sui-Chu & Wilms, 1996). Jeyenes’ (2005) research analyses indicate that adolescents with highly involved parents had an advantage over those students whose parents were less involved. Parents had a statistically significant positive impact on the academic performance on African American 12th graders (Jeyenes, 2005). Using the 1992 National Educational Longitudinal Study data, Jeyenes (2005) assessed the effects of parental involvement with the academic achievement and found out that parents were slightly more involved in the education of their daughters than their sons.

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44 Teacher perceptions on parental involvement. Jackson and Landsmann (2009) state that parents have greater influence on their children’s academic success than teachers do. Educators claim that the most effective way to raise student achievement is to increase parental involvement, furthermore, parental involvement is more important than small class size, more increased power and control for teachers, more important than promoting student responsibility, and more important than decreasing time spent watching television (Elam, 1989). The Instructor Poll, supported by the 1985 Gallup Poll, surveyed teachers and the results reveal that 90% of the teacher respondents did not feel that they were getting support they need from parents (Elam, 1989). Hornby (2000) notes that the common complaint teachers have is that the parents they most want to see seldom come to school. The main things teachers want from parents are to: (a) be more open with the teachers about their child’s special needs or health problems, (b) cooperate in reinforcing school discipline at home, (c) reinforce homework or listen to children read, (d) attend PTA and progress report card days, (e) read and acknowledge reports and letters sent home, (f) provide updated phone numbers and addresses, (g) keep children home if they are not well, and (h) volunteer to help out at school (Hornby, 2000, p. 16) Boers (2002) conducted a research study on what teachers want from parents. Kindergarten through grade 12 teachers were randomly selected from various schools and the teachers’ responses clearly demonstrated that teachers do care about students and the students’ education (Boers, 2002). Nine teacher concerns, echoing similar findings to those that Hornby outlined, emerged from Boers’ (2002) findings: Teachers want parents to (a) initiate communication to share with the teachers about their children’s

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45 personalities, learning styles, family situations, and extracurricular activities; (b) monitor homework which is often a teacher’s frustration; (c) provide parenting and study skills; (d) get involved; (e) establish student behavior; (f) respond to teachers; (g) emphasize reading; (h) respond to communication; and (i) recognize health factors (Boers, 2002) . Teachers are often faced with not only educating students, but also dealing with emotional and behavioral problems (Canter & Canter, 1991). Furthermore, school practices and policies oftentimes reflect a low commitment to parental involvement, confusion about the role of teachers, low teacher expectations, and an unwelcoming attitude towards parents: negative communication from schools and the lack of outreach to parents with problems and poor living conditions are all set-backs to parental involvement (Wheeler, 1992). Other than lack of parental involvement at the schools, at least 10% of public secondary school teachers cite student apathy, student absenteeism, student disrespect for teachers, student alcoholism and drug abuse, and student tardiness as challenging issues (National Center for Education Statistics [NCES], 1993). Hines and Paulson (2006) wanted to determine if parents and teachers had different views of adolescent storm and stress and the perception with parenting and teaching behaviors. Storm and stress beliefs were identified as parents’ and teachers’ perceptions of conflict, moodiness, and risk-taking behavior in adolescents (Hines & Paulson, 2006). Results from the study indicate that teachers maintain stronger perception than parents that adolescents are more attached to storm and stress beliefs (Hines & Paulson, 2006). Teachers also endorsed conforming and lower positive behaviors than parents (Hines & Paulson, 2006). The results of the study suggest that

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46 stereotypic beliefs of storm and stress of the adolescent period continue and these may influence how adults interact with adolescents (Hines & Paulson, 2006). Barriers to parental involvement. Parents who are not involved in their child’s educational life give the child a message that the child is not important and does not warrant his or her parents’ attention (Canter & Canter, 1991). Telling children that school is valuable and important has less effect than when parents show the child that they are involved (Ordorica, 2009). Feelings of inadequacy, failure, poor self-worth, negative attitudes toward bad experiences with school, cultural and language barriers, economic, emotional, time constraints, and logistical problems are barriers to parental involvement (Wheeler, 1992). In a study of Chicago schools, researchers at Roosevelt University (1990) found four obstacles to parental involvement: (a) both parents and schools display poor attitudes concerning each other, (b) reluctance and refusal of teachers to accept parents’ knowledge and insights about their children, (c) mismatches between the policy and practices of the school and the parents’ concept of parental involvement, and (d) the school’s inability to adapt to societal changes. According to Hornby (2000), parents want teachers to: (a) listen to them more, (b) demonstrate a more approachable attitude, (c) be more honest when they do not know something, (d) contact parents whenever they suspect a problem of any kind, (e) treat all students with respect, (f) discuss their children’s progress at parent-teacher conferences and to correct class work and homework regularly, and (g) use parents more as a resource in the school.

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47 Hickman (2007) interviewed 25 parents from an urban high school setting to explore the barriers that impede parental involvement and discovered six barriers that influenced parental involvement in the educational setting. The findings include time restraints, family responsibilities, parent’s own educational experience, lack of teacher cooperation, lack of communication, and the relationship between community and school (Hickman, 2007). The time restraints that parents identified were work schedules and school activities planned at inconvenient times (Hickman, 2007). Family responsibilities were a barrier for single parents trying to balance family commitments such as taking care of younger children and grandchildren with participating in the learning environment (Hickman, 2007). Some of the parents that were interviewed in the study did express the need for their involvement in their child’s education because of their sense of efficacy (Hickman, 2007). Participants stated that interaction between teacher and parent is limited and teacher-parent relationships can be improved if they communicate more (Hickman, 2007). The lack of communication by teachers and administrators on a timely manner is also a concern for parents: parents want the school to be more proactive because they claim that the first contact from the school is usually due to a problem concerning their child (Hickman, 2007). The relationship between the community and the school affects parental involvement--the school’s reputation influences the parents’ desire to be involved (Hickman, 2007). Some of the parents who were interviewed did not feel connected, appreciated, or welcomed to participate in the educational setting and expressed that some school personnel were rude and unwilling to help with parent

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48 requests (Hickman, 2007). Conversely, other parents reported feeling welcome in the school and always being able to contact the teacher through phone calls (Hickman, 2007). Jackson (2008) conducted a mixed method study assessing the perceptions of teachers and parents regarding the lack of parental involvement in a suburban high school in Georgia. The researcher collected information from 95 teachers and 130 parents; from a parent perspective the findings conclude that time constraints and language barriers were variables that pertain to parents not being involved in their child’s education (Jackson, 2008). Further, teachers tend to agree that existing barriers regarding the lack of parental involvement are that parents: (a) do not know how to talk to their teen, (b) are too involved in their own work, (c) do not know school policies and procedures, (d) have language barriers, (e) lack transportation, (f) have demanding work schedules, and (g) lack childcare options (Jackson, 2008). The school environment serves as a social and formal institution for all students to develop their skills (Epstein, 2009). Epstein’s (2009) overlapping spheres of influence and six types of parental involvement were presented as a framework for schools to use as a guide for educators and parents. Numerous research studies on parental involvement have shown that parental involvement is essential in improving student achievement (Agronick et al., 2009; Epstein, 2009, Henderson et al., 2007; Hornby, 2000). Parental involvement in the elementary and secondary has shown to make an impact on student learning. Teacher and parent perspectives on parent involvement and the barriers to parental involvement identifying social or emotional issues were discussed. However throughout the research, building a positive relationship in the interest of the students and

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49 student learning emerged as an essential idea. In the next frame, government policies, parent rights, and legislation and policies of Title 1 parental involvement will be discussed. In addition, the history of ESEA and the many forms of ESEA reauthorizations and the CNMI public school system will be addressed. Governmental Policies Parent Rights and Legislation In 1852, public education of free common schools was established when the state of Massachusetts enacted the first compulsory attendance law for children aged eight to 14 and the educational rights of students were entrusted to the parents (Alexander & Alexander, 2009, p. 27). The common law doctrine of parens patriae alleges the legal authority for the state to require school attendance (Alexander & Alexander, 2009, p. 301). The government’s interest governs the activities of the child on the basis of compulsory attendance and child labor laws (Alexander & Alexander, 2009, p. 303). In the following paragraphs the landmark court cases are briefly discussed, recognizing that parent rights in education is a protected issue. In Meyers v. Nebraska (1923), the Supreme Court of the United States concludes that the statute prohibiting teaching of foreign language violates substantive due process. Nebraska law forbids teaching any language other than English to any student who had not completed the eighth grade. However, the Supreme Court ruled that teachers and parents have fundamental rights to choose what their children are taught. The court found that Nebraska law violates the Fourteenth Amendment substantive due process (Alexander & Alexander, 2009, p. 351) In the case of Pierce v. Society of the Sisters of the Holy Names of Jesus and Mary (1925), the court ruled that the compulsory education law requiring all children to attend public schools violates due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. Oregon state law was interfering with the liberty of parents to direct the rearing of

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50 their off spring and education of children under their parents’ jurisdiction. (Alexander & Alexander, 2009, p. 310) The Wisconsin v. Yoder (1972) Supreme Court case, asserts that the state cannot compel Amish children to attend public high school as it violates their rights under the first and fourteenth amendments. Formal high school education beyond the eighth grade is contrary to Amish beliefs because it takes them away from the community, physically and emotionally during the crucial and formative adolescent period of life. (Alexander & Alexander, 2009, p. 312) The Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) of 1974 establishes standards for schools to follow in handling student records when parents are given the rights to inspect all records for accuracy. Student information cannot be released without parental consent and schools that do not abide by the procedures may risk losing federal funds administered by the U. S. Department of Education. (Alexander & Alexander, 2009, p. 719) Parents’ rights involvement in public or private schools is not a new idea (Ramirez, 1999). Rather, parents present valuable perspectives to such issues as language, religion, free speech, and constitutional rights (Fischer & Schimmel, 1978). Federal policies of Title I of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) of 1965 was enacted from the Flast v Cohen supreme court case when taxpayers challenged the expenditure of federal funds to finance reading, arithmetic, and other programs in the schools (Alexander & Alexander, 2009, p. 10). The next segment will discuss the inception and the historical timeline of ESEA. Title 1 of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act U.S. Title 1 federal legislation is best known for providing funding for low income communities to fight poverty and improve public education (U.S. Department of Education [USDOE], 2007). Passed in 1965, President Lyndon Johnson signed the original Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) into law (Fege, 2006). In

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51 1973, President Richard Nixon enacted ESEA changes, Public Law 93-380, requiring all schools receiving Title 1 funding to establish a Title 1 Parent Advisory Council--a parent advisory group (Fege, 2006). In 1978, parental involvement mandates were strengthened and the Education Amendment of 1978 required parents to be involved in developing programs for academic achievement (Fege, 2006). In 1982 ESEA made another adjustment to parental involvement in the schools (Fege, 2006). A 1983 report, A Nation at Risk, indicates that 13% of 17 year olds can be considered functionally illiterate, nearly 40% of 17 year olds cannot draw inferences from written materials, only one-fifth can write a persuasive essay, and only one-third can solve a mathematics problem; remedial mathematics courses in college increased by 72% and scores continue to decline in verbal, mathematics, physics, and English subjects as measured by the College Board’s Scholastic Aptitude Tests (USDOE, 1983). A Nation at Risk admonishes the reader: Part of what is at risk is the promise first made on this continent: All, regardless of race or class or economic status, are entitled to a fair chance and to the tools for developing their individual powers of mind and spirit to the utmost. This promise means that all children by virtue of their own efforts, competently guided, can hope to attain the mature and informed judgment needed to secure gainful employment, and to manage their own lives, thereby serving not on their own interests but also the progress of society itself. (USDOE, 1983, p. 2) In 1994 in the reauthorization of ESEA Title 1, also known as the Improving America’s Schools Act (IASA), President Bill Clinton made two changes: (a) he signed into legislation the School-Parent Compact and (b) he required all Title 1 schools to use at least 1% of their Title 1 funds on parental involvement (Beach, 1997). School districts

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52 are to identify schools that are not helping all students perform as expected on summative assessment (USDOE, 1996). The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 addresses the family and parental involvement policies and school collaboration with parents (USDOE, 2002). The Parent Information Resource Center was created under Title V, Part D, Subpart 16, and is required to provide services to parents, schools, and the community to facilitate improving parental involvement education (USDOE, 2002). This program was established to ensure the school-linked or school-based program provides training, information, and support in implementing parental involvement strategies (USDOE, 2002). The U.S. Department of Education (2004) parental involvement legislation has pointed out the following: The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB)--Elementary and Secondary Educational Act 1965 (ESEA) congressional act . . . recognizes the importance of parental involvement, as noted in Title I Part A, also known as Education for Disadvantaged Grants to Local Education Agencies, which suggests that parental involvement in a child’s education is essential. (p. 1) The most recent reauthorization of the ESEA legislation, enacted in 2010, is entitled A Blueprint for Reform (USDOE, 2010). The new reform is supported by the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 and is outlined around four areas: (a) improving teacher and principal effectiveness, (b) providing information to families to participate in school activities and governance, (c) implementing college and career ready standards, and (d) improving student learning and achievement in America’s lowest-performing schools with intense support and interventions (USDOE, 2010).

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53 The Mariana Islands and the Public School System The Mariana Islands are located at about 145 degrees east longitude and between 13 degrees and 21 degrees north latitude, between the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn, making the Marianas tropical islands. Of the 15 islands that make up the Mariana Islands, the six southern islands are covered with limestone and the nine northern islands are high volcanic islands (Farrell, 2011). The 15 Mariana Islands are: Guam, Rota, Aguigan, Tinian, Saipan, Farallon de Medinilla, Anatahan, Sariguan, Guguan, Alamagan, Pagan, Agrihan, Asuncion, Maug, and Farallon de Pajaros (Farrell, 2011). The largest island in the Marianas is Guam which is 30 miles long and covers about 212 square miles of land area, whereas Saipan covers approximately 44 square miles and is approximately 12 miles long and 6 miles wide (Farrell, 2011). Tinian is 2.75 miles south of Saipan and has a land area of 39 square miles; Rota is 73 miles south-southwest of Saipan and has a land area of 33 square miles (Farrell, 2011). The Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) refers to the three inhabited islands of Saipan, Tinian, and Rota (Farrell, 2011). The two main groups of people that first settled in the CNMI are Chamorros and Carolinians (Farrell, 2011). The indigenous population has blended with variety of people from other parts of the world such as Micronesia, Asia, and the U.S. These people migrated to the CNMI in the last 10-20 years. Intermarriages are beginning to change the makeup of the local indigenous

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54 population and the social makeup in the CNMI. This diversity of people and culture is especially seen in the CNMI Public School System. The CNMI Public School System consists of 20 campuses of learning for school-age children from the ages of 6 to 18. Of these 20 campuses, 12 are elementary schools, four are junior high schools, and five are senior high schools. The senior high student population on Saipan is as follows: Marianas High School with a population of 1,400, Saipan Southern High School with a population of 850, and Kagman High School with 750 students. Summary The family systems theory presented its characteristics and features such as open, ongoing, goal seeking, and self-regulating. The ecological theory of environment gave insights as to how the environment influences the child’s development. Different layers of environmental setting were discussed to show how changes in the family affect child development. Because this research is focused on the secondary school level, attention to the second framework of education, education setting, and how these topics relate to parental involvement was addressed. Epstein’s (2009) theory of overlapping spheres of the family, the school, and the community involvement sets the stage for the environmental setting. Epstein’s (2009) theory of overlapping spheres of influence result in complex interrelationships that define six different types of parental involvement as a framework for schools to use as a guide for educators and parents. Numerous research studies have

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55 shown parental involvement to be essential in improving student achievement (Henderson et al., 2007). Parental involvement in the elementary and secondary schools makes an impact on student learning. Teacher and parent perspectives on parent involvement and the barriers such as social and emotional issues are apparent in the adolescent stage. However throughout the research, building a positive relationship in the interest of the students and student learning emerged as an essential idea. Government legislation, policies of Title 1 parental involvement and the history of ESEA, and the ESEA reauthorizations and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands and the public school system corroborates with the U.S. Department of Education legislation. A better understanding of teachers’ attitudes towards parents and parental involvement to improve opportunities for policy and school practices will be measured by gathering data. In Chapter Three, the research methodology will be addressed, including the research design, participant selection, analysis of the data, and limitations of this proposed study. In Chapter Four, the analysis of the data will be presented and Chapter Five will discuss the results of the data, the implications for practice, and recommendations for future research.

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56 CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY This study investigated the perceptions of teachers concerning parental involvement in the three high schools of Saipan, part of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) Public School System. A survey was made available to approximately 107 high school teachers as a method of gathering data. The survey instrument is based on Epstein’s types of family involvement in the schools (Epstein, 2009). The researcher used Epstein, Connors, and Salinas’ (1993) categories to identify the effectiveness of the types of family involvement present in Saipan public high schools. This chapter details the methodology that was used to gather and analyze data for the study including the (a) research questions and hypotheses, (b) methodological design and rationale, (c) sampling consent and confidentiality, (d) instrumentation, (e) data analysis, (f) reliability and validity, (g) data security and sample protection, (h) limitations and delimitations, (i) researcher bias, and (j) summary. The purpose of this study was to determine the perception of teachers in the three public high schools in Saipan using the framework developed by Epstein (2009). The result of this study may provide information concerning the types of support and resources of parental involvement in the Saipan public school system. The following section discusses the research questions and hypotheses that formed the basis for this study.

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57 Research Questions and Hypotheses Creswell (2003) notes that there are certain types of social research problems that call for specific approaches. Research questions help shape and specify the focus of the purpose of the study in a quantitative study (Creswell, 2003). Research questions are interrogative statements or questions that are presented to seek answers and hypotheses are predictions the researcher presents about the relationship between the variables (Creswell, 2003; Wiersma, 2000). This descriptive study utilized a cross-sectional survey design to seek answers to the following research questions. The research questions that guide the data collection and analysis are: 1. According to Epstein’s framework of six types of parent involvement, how do teachers rate the types of parent involvement activities in effectiveness for student academic success in the Saipan public high schools? 2. Is there a significant difference between gender and years of experience as a high school teacher, and the perceptions of parent involvement within the high school teacher population? Huck (2004) states that a “hypothesis is a formal formulated statement predicting a single research outcome and a tentative explanation of the relationship between two or more variables” (p. 7). According to Wiersma (2000), a “hypothesis is a proposition about a solution to a problem and the relationship of two or variables or the nature of some phenomenon” (p. 39). The null hypothesis is a “pinpoint statement as to the unknown quantitative value of the parameter in the population of interest” (Huck, 2004, p. 146). An alternative hypothesis is different from the null hypothesis in that the

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58 “possible value of the population parameter included will always differ from what is specified in the hypothesis” (Huck, 2004, p. 152). The null and alternative hypotheses that will be tested in this proposed study are: H01: There is no significant difference in mean scores on the effectiveness of the six types of parental involvement as reported by Saipan public high school teachers. Ha1: There is significant difference in mean scores on the effectiveness of the six types of parental involvement as reported by Saipan public high school teachers. For each type of parent involvement, the null and alternative hypotheses tested for the two-way ANOVA are: H02: There is no significant effect in teacher perceptions of parent involvement based on gender in the three high schools on Saipan. Ha2: There is a significant effect in teacher perceptions of parent involvement based on gender in the three high schools on Saipan. Ho3: There is no significant effect in teacher perceptions of parent involvement based on years of teaching experience in the three high schools on Saipan. Ha3: There is a significant effect in teacher perceptions of parent involvement based on years of teaching experience in the three high schools on Saipan. Ho4: There is no significant interaction effect of gender and years of teaching experience on teacher perceptions of parent involvement in the three high schools on Saipan.

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59 Ha4: There is a significant interaction effect of gender and years of teaching experience on teacher perceptions of parent involvement in the three high schools on Saipan. The independent variables for this research study are gender and number of years teaching. The dependent variables are the six types of parental involvement. The researcher used surveys to facilitate comparison and statistical aggregation of data relevant to each variable. The survey tools used to measure the independent variables will provide critical information that will allow the researcher to reject or fail to reject each hypothesis. Methodological Design and Rationale Creswell (2003) discusses the three elements of inquiry to form various approaches to research: knowledge claim, strategies, and methods. Knowledge claim means that researchers have certain assumptions about how and what they will learn during the inquiry (Creswell, 2003). Creswell (2003) further expands knowledge claim from four schools of thought: post-positivism, constructivism, advocacy/participatory, and pragmatism. Creswell (2003) states that positivism is closely aligned to the scientific method, quantitative research, and empirical research; moreover, knowledge through the positivistic lens is based on careful observation and measurement of the objectives that really exist out there in the world, such as teachers’ perceptions of parent involvement in the public high school. Similarly, Best (1981) defines descriptive research as research that describes, records, and interprets the conditions that exist. A quantitative approach is

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60 when the investigator uses post-positivism claims for developing knowledge edge and employs strategies such as experiments and surveys to collect data (Creswell, 2003). In addressing the research questions, a quantitative method using a web-based survey was conducted as the most appropriate method for this study. For this study the researcher used a survey research design. A survey design presents a numeric description of trends, attitudes, or opinions of a population (Creswell, 2003). Moreover, the survey methodology clearly defines the problem and requires careful analysis and interpretation of data gathered and reported findings (Best, 1981). For the purpose of this study, a survey design provided a quantitative description of high school teachers’ perceptions about parental involvement and how the perceptions differ among demographic variables using the High School and Family Partnerships survey of the six types of parental involvement (Epstein et al., 1993). The responses of the teachers described their perceptions of the effectiveness of activities for parental involvement in high school (Wiersma, 2000). The variables were not manipulated as the variables for this study occurred in a natural setting (Wiersma, 2000). Further, the survey was self-administered and data were collected at one point in time (Creswell, 2003). Sampling, Consent, and Confidentiality This quantitative study consisted of a survey of high school teachers from the three high schools in the CNMI public school system located on Saipan. Approximately 107 high school teachers teach in the public school system on Saipan and all of them were invited to participate in the study.

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61 The following process was used to obtain the participants for this proposed research: 1. The researcher obtained a letter of permission from the Commissioner of Education in Saipan, CNMI. 2. After receiving permission from the Commissioner of Education, the researcher distributed the Letter to Principals to each of the three high school principals on Saipan to obtain principal consent for participation (see Appendix A). 3. Once these permissions were received, the researcher submitted these letters with the application to the Argosy University-Hawaii Institutional Review Board (IRB). Data collection did not begin until the study had received full certification. 4. Upon receiving full certification, the researcher distributed the Teacher Letter of Introduction to each high school in Saipan, and requested that the letters be placed in the teachers’ boxes (see Appendix B). 5. The teachers who voluntarily chose to take the survey outside of their work hours used the URL in the letter of introduction to connect with the survey. 6. An electronic passive consent letter was the first section on the online Teacher Survey, with the survey questions following (see Appendices C & E). Instrumentation The instrument used for this study is from the High School and Family Partnership survey that was developed by Epstein et al. (1993). The researcher obtained written approval to use the survey instrument for this study (see Appendix D). The full

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62 survey includes parallel questions for teachers, parents, and students, however the researcher only used and modified the survey questionnaire for teachers for this study. The use of this survey addressed the framework for the study through questions concerning teacher attitudes toward parental involvement. This teacher survey instrument consisted of 30 statements to be valued using a rating scale in which the respondents were asked to indicate their perception of the level of effectiveness of each parent involvement strategy on a four point Likert scale. The scale ranged from high score of 4 (very effective) to a low score of 1 (not effective at all). All 30 statements were adapted from Epstein’s study of parental involvement and were mapped to each of the six types of parental involvement. Once the data collection began, this survey was available online for two weeks; teachers were reminded to go to the website to answer the survey on their own time outside of working hours. The online web-based survey used the program, SurveyMonkey. The researcher provided written instructions to go to the specific website where the participant were able to give consent to take the survey (see Appendix E). The survey consisted of two parts: (a) the questionnaire on the six types of parental involvement and (b) demographic information of the teachers from each school (see Appendix C). Data Analysis Data were collected from all the secondary teachers who voluntarily completed more than 15 survey questions from the three public high schools in Saipan, CNMI Public School System. Two parts of the survey were analyzed: (a) the questionnaire on

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63 the six types of parental involvement and (b) demographic profiles of teachers. This study used descriptive statistics and inferential analysis for data analysis. The researcher used SPSS Statistics program to conduct measures of central tendency from the research. Internal consistency reliability is defined as “consistency across the parts of a measuring instrument with the ‘parts’ being individual questions or subsets of questions” (Huck, 2004, p. 78). The four point Likert type response format of the teacher survey aimed at assessing the respondents’ perceptions met the criteria to use Cronbach’s alpha (Huck, 2004, p. 80). The survey data will report descriptive statistics, mean scores, and standard deviations, in each of the types of parent involvement. Descriptive statistics were used because frequency distributions show how many teachers had similar or different perceptions or ideas (Huck, 2004). Gender, age, and other demographic characteristics were compiled using a frequency distribution (Huck, 2004). Patterns in the data showed teachers’ perceptions. Demographic information was reported as aggregate data. Data from the survey were analyzed using the statistical computer program of SPSS. A two-way ANOVA was employed to test the hypotheses of the six types of parental involvement (parenting, communicating, volunteerism, learning at home, decision making, and collaborating with the community), gender, and number of years teaching. “The two-way ANOVA is concerned with the set of µ values that correspond to the sample means that are computed from the study’s data” (Huck, 2004, p. 317). Statistical comparisons of mean scores were conducted for a two-way ANOVA with the six types of parental involvement identified as the levels, while factors for each two-way ANOVA were gender (two levels) and years of teaching experience (three levels). The

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64 levels of teaching experience for this study were identified as follows: 0-5 years, 6-15 years, and 16 years or more of teaching experience. Two types of errors are present in statistical analyses: these two types of errors are Type I and Type II errors. This hypothesis testing procedure distinguishes potentially wrong decisions (Huck, 2004). A Type I error points out the mistake of rejecting H0 when the null hypothesis is actually true (Huck, 2004). A Type II error on the other hand points out the kind of mistake that is made if H0 is not rejected when the null hypothesis is actually false (Huck, 2004). The alpha level sets the chances of rejecting a true null hypothesis (Huck, 2004, p. 166). Alpha is the level of statistical difference in means discovered by the researcher even if no difference exists, α = .05 means 5 times out of 100 the researcher risks committing a Type I error. For this study, the researcher will set the alpha as .05 (Huck, 2004). The purpose of the “post hoc investigations is to identify the main effect means associated with each factor that are far enough apart to suggest that the corresponding populations means are dissimilar” (Huck, 2004, p. 338). Huck (2004) states that when a standard two-way ANOVA is conducted, three F-values are computed--one for each main effect and one for the interaction. With the alpha level of .05 to evaluate each of the F-tests that will be computed, if a significant difference is found, that is, if the null hypothesis is rejected, the post hoc test will be conducted. If the researcher fails to reject the null hypothesis, no post hoc analysis will be done. Five test procedures are frequently used in post hoc investigations: Fisher’s LSD, Duncan’s Multiple Range Test, Newman-

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65 Keuls, Tukey HSD, and Scheffé--to determine whether an observed difference between two means is significant (Huck, 2004). When the critical value increases slightly, it is considered liberal and when the critical value decreases greatly, it is considered conservative whereas, conservative procedures provide greater control over Type I error risk but does so at the expense of lower power. (Huck, 2004, p. 301) The post hoc analysis used in this study was Tukey’s Honestly Significantly Difference (HSD) test to identify significant differences (Huck, 2004, p. 300). Tukey’s HSD was used for this study because it is the second most conservative test procedure when they are placed in a continuum from liberal to conservative, (Fisher’s LSD to Scheffé). The p value was set at p < .05 or better for all significant contrasts for the Tukey post hoc tests (Huck, 2004). Reliability and Validity Wiersma (2000) states that one of the common problems or threats of survey research with questionnaire studies is the possibility of a high rate of non-response; the validity of survey questionnaires depends on the response rate and the quality of responses because high non-response rate may introduce bias into the data. Moreover, Wiersma (2000) claims that the quality of the survey responses needs to represent the group intended to be surveyed and that the survey responses represent a consistent distribution, in this case, Saipan public high school teachers’ perceptions. The survey used in this study was an adapted version with permission from the developers (Epstein et al., 1993). The researchers designed and tested the questionnaires with teachers from six high schools in Maryland (Epstein et al., 1993). Based on the survey responses, the

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66 framework delineating the six major types of parent involvement was developed (Epstein et al., 1993). The analysis of the survey items generated the reliability for each question and for each group of questions (Epstein et al., 1993). Although the original study focused teacher perceptions of parent involvement with ninth grade students, the researcher was given permission to modify the survey to include teachers of grades 9-12, rather than restricting it to teachers of ninth grade students only. The High School and Family Partnership Survey is designed to provide the school with baseline information concerning parental involvement and areas for improvement (Epstein et al., 1993). The developers of the survey classified the items in the teacher survey into eight sections (Epstein, Connors-Tadros, Horsey, & Simon, 1996). Cronbach’s alpha was used to report reliability of the survey items: the reliabilities of the teacher, parent, and student scales range from modest (a = .53) to high (a = .91) with the large majority ranging from a = .6 to a = .8 indicating the usefulness for research and practical purposes. (Epstein et al., 1996, p. 5) The reliability coefficients from the items on the survey that related to the overall teacher attitudes about the six specific types of parent involvement are: (a) parenting, a = .84; (b) communicating, a = .65; (c) learning at home, a = .65; (d) decision making, a = .66; (e) volunteering, a = .78; and (f) community collaboration, a = .73 (Epstein et al., 1996). Data Security and Sample Protection The participants’ responses on the web-based survey were anonymous; the researcher had no knowledge of which teachers voluntarily chose to participate in the study and those who did not participate or withdrew from the study. SurveyMonkey does

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67 not collect any identifying information about the participants including names, identifying numbers, or IP addresses. All raw data will be kept locked in a file cabinet located in the researcher’s home; the researcher has the only key to the file cabinet. Survey data were analyzed on a password-protected computer with the researcher the only one knowing the password. The data that the researcher gathered was summarized and presented as aggregate data with only the researcher and his dissertation chairperson having access to the raw data. All raw data will be destroyed three years after the completion of this study on August 1, 2015. Limitations and Delimitations Several limitations are present in this study. The researcher has identified the following as limitations: (a) the study was limited in scope based on the survey method of data collection, (b) incomplete surveys may have impacted the strength of the results, (c) the time period for the research may have affected the responses of the participants, (d) the quantitative study did not allow for in-depth interviews of participants that may have generated a deeper understanding of their personal experiences with parents, (f) the researcher did not have control over discussions among the participants concerning the study, and (i) other variables unknown to the researcher may have skewed the research data. The delimitations of this study are the parameters that the researcher set in designing the study. The delimitations in this study included the following areas: (a) only Saipan public high school teachers employed at the time of the survey were sampled, (b)

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68 this study was limited to teachers teaching at the high school level, and (c) the teachers had to be familiar with and able to use Internet technology. Researcher Bias Researcher bias may potentially include the fact that the researcher was a full time employee in the CNMI school system and may have had unavoidable interactions with potential participants during the research process. Because this survey was taken anonymously, the researcher had no knowledge of which teachers chose to take the survey. The researcher, by working in the CNMI school system, has had many experiences working with parents, and had to set aside his perceptions of his experiences when analyzing the data. To avoid any undue influence on any of the potential participants, the researcher did not approach teachers at any of the high schools to elicit a higher return rate of the survey. Summary The purpose of this study was to determine the perceptions of the secondary public school teachers at the three public high schools in Saipan regarding parental involvement based on the framework developed by Epstein (2009). Chapter Three of the study discussed the research questions and hypotheses, methodological design and rationale, sampling, consent and confidentiality, instrumentation, data analysis, reliability and validity, data security and sample protection, limitations, delimitations, and

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70 CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS The literature review in Chapter Two discussed many research studies conducted in the elementary school years that showed promising results when parents become involved in their child’s education. The Elementary and Secondary Educational Act of 1965 (ESEA) states that parental involvement in a child’s education is essential. Although parental involvement frequently occurs in the elementary and middle school level, less is known about family involvement in high schools or secondary schools; a limited number of studies have been conducted on parental involvement in high schools (Simon, 2000). No formal research has been conducted on exploring teachers’ perceptions of parental involvement in Saipan public high schools, making such research a necessity in the pursuit of improving student performance in the CNMI public schools. The purpose of this study was to determine the perception of teachers concerning parent involvement in the three public high schools in Saipan using the parental involvement framework developed by Epstein (2009). The results of this study may provide information concerning the types of support and resources needed for parental involvement in the Saipan public school system. The six areas of parental involvement--Parenting, Communicating, Volunteering, Learning at Home, Decision Making, and Collaborating with the Community--developed by Epstein through the National Network of Partnership School at John Hopkins University Comprehensive School Reform were used as the survey instrument. The following section discusses the research questions and hypotheses that formed the basis for this study.

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71 Research Questions and Hypotheses This study used the SPSS Statistics program to report the descriptive statistics and inferential analysis for data analysis. The researcher collected data for this investigation from a web-based survey serviced by SurveyMonkey. All public high school teachers in Saipan were invited to participate in the online survey, which consisted of 30 closed-ended questions. The purpose of the survey was to rate the effectiveness of the six types of parental involvement from the perceptions of the Saipan public high school teachers. Part I of the survey asked the participants to give information to create the demographic profile of the participants on gender, age, number of years teaching experience, and ethnicity. Part II of the survey focused on the teachers’ perceptions of the school practices framed by Epstein, Connors-Tadros, and Salinas (1993) on the six types of parental involvement. This chapter reports the analysis of the findings from the online surveys with the three public high schools in Saipan on the two research questions and hypotheses. The two research questions that guided the data collection and analysis were: 1. According to Epstein’s framework of six types of parent involvement, how do teachers rate the types of parent involvement activities in effectiveness for student academic success in the Saipan public high schools? 2. Is there a significant difference between gender and years of experience as a high school teacher, and the perceptions of parent involvement within the high school teacher population? Data were also collected to test the null and alternative hypotheses in this study.

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72 H01: There is no significant difference in mean scores on the effectiveness of the six types of parental involvement as reported by Saipan public high school teachers. Ha1: There is a significant difference in mean scores on the effectiveness of the six types of parental involvement as reported by Saipan public high school teachers. Data were also collected to test the null and alternative hypotheses for each type of parent involvement: Parenting, Communicating, Volunteering, Learning at Home, Decision Making, and Collaborating with the Community. H02: There is no significant effect in teacher perceptions of parent involvement based on gender in the three high schools on Saipan. Ha2: There is a significant effect in teacher perceptions of parent involvement based on gender in the three high schools on Saipan. Ho3: There is no significant effect in teacher perceptions of parent involvement based on years of teaching experience in the three high schools on Saipan. Ha3: There is a significant effect in teacher perceptions of parent involvement based on years of teaching experience in the three high schools on Saipan. Ho4: There is no significant interaction effect of gender and years of teaching experience on teacher perceptions of parent involvement in the three high schools on Saipan. Ha4: There is a significant interaction effect of gender and years of teaching experience on teacher perceptions of parent involvement in the three high schools on Saipan.

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73 Teacher Demographics The sample population consisted of public high school general education teachers, special education teachers, and counselors. Thirty-seven high school educators responded to the survey for a response rate of 34%. Of the 37 respondents who clicked on “consent to participate,” six respondents’ data were missing because the participants answered fewer than 15 of the survey items so the data were not included in the SPSS analysis. Thus, 31 respondents’ results were considered “valid” and were the basis for the analysis. The sampled teachers were mostly female teachers with 17 (54.8%) participants and 14 (45.2%) male participants. The age group category of 31-45 had the highest response rate with 14 (45.2%) participants, followed by the 18-30 age group with a response rate of 10 (32.3%), then the 46-60 age group with 5 (16.1%), and the age group of 61+ years with 2 (6.5%) respondents. Teachers who taught between 6-15 years had the highest response rate of 13 (41.9%) participants; the second highest group of teachers--0-5 years teaching--had 12 (38.7%) respondents, and 6 (19.4%) teachers reported 16-20 years of teaching experience. Two ethnic groups of the sample population, Chamorro and Caucasian, each had 9 (28.1%) participants. Next, the Filipino, Pacific Islander, and Other ethnic groups had 4 (12.5%) respondents each. The last ethnic group, Asians, had a response rate of 2 (6.3%) participants.

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74 Research Question 1 Research Question 1: According to Epstein’s framework of six types of parent involvement, how do teachers rate the types of parent involvement activities in effectiveness for student academic success in the Saipan public high schools? This section discusses the findings on how the teachers rate the effectiveness of the six parental involvement activities. A Likert-type, ordinal scale of decimal values of 1.00 to 4.00 rating were calculated and averaged to establish the mean. Numbers are noted as equivalents to descriptive phrases: 1 = “Not Effective,” 2 = “Somewhat Effective,” 3 = “Effective,” and 4 = “Very Effective” with the higher the number expressing a favorable response to each statement. After running the frequency test of the 1.00 as minimum and 4.00 as maximum, the mean of each of the six parental involvement activities showed that the participants rated Communicating as the most effective parental involvement activity (M = 2.91, SD = .59), followed by Parenting (M = 2.79, SD = .73), Collaborating with the Community (M = 2.76, SD = .62), Learning at Home (M = 2.68, SD = .70), Volunteering (M = 2.50, SD = .70), and Decision Making (M = 2.49, SD = .61). Hypothesis 1 H01: There is no significant difference in mean scores on the effectiveness of the six types of parental involvement as reported by Saipan public high school teachers. Ha1: There is a significant difference in mean scores on the effectiveness of the six types of parental involvement as reported by Saipan public high school teachers.

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75 A paired-samples t-test was conducted to evaluate the mean scores on the effectiveness of the six types of parent involvement that Saipan public high school teachers reported. The six areas of parent involvement were paired with each of the other areas of parental involvement using the following arrangements: (a) parenting-communicating, parenting-volunteering, parenting-learning at home, parenting-decision making, and parenting-collaborating with community; (b) communicating-volunteering, communicating-learning at home, communicating-decision making, and communicating-collaborating with community; (c) volunteering-learning at home, volunteering-decision making, and volunteering-collaborating with community; (d) learning at home-decision making and learning at home-collaborating with community; and (e) decision making-collaborating with community. Comparisons with parenting. The first set of paired samples t-test revealed mixed results in the Sig. 2-tailed probability value. The results of the analysis of parenting-communication, t(30) = .239, p = .813, 95% CI [-.244, .308]; and parenting-collaborating with community t(30) = .941, p = .354, 95% CI [-.151, .409] exceed the researcher set alpha value of .05, thus concluding that there were no statistically significant differences in the paired parent involvement in these areas. In other words, the null hypothesis for the paired samples of parenting-communication and parenting-collaborating with community failed to be rejected; no significant difference was found in the teachers’ perceptions of effectiveness of parenting as compared to communicating or collaborating with the community.

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76 In contrast, the probability values of parenting-volunteering t(30) = 2.061, p = .048, 95% CI [.003, .642]; parenting-learning at home t(30) = 2.278, p = .03, 95% CI [.027, .489]; and parenting-decision making t(30) = 3.105, p = .004, 95% CI [.155, .749] yielded scores less than the alpha value of .05, thus rejecting the null hypothesis and accepting the alternative hypothesis. This means that there are statistically significant differences in teacher perceptions of parenting and volunteering, learning at home, and decision making. The participants in this study perceive parenting as the more effective parent involvement activity. Comparisons with communicating. The second set of paired samples t-test also revealed mixed results in the Sig. 2-tailed probability value. The probability values of communicating-learning at home t(30) = 2.038, p = .050, 95% CI [.000, .452]; and communicating-collaborating with community t(30) = 1.139, p = .264, 95% CI [-.077, .270] exceeded the alpha value of .05, thus concluding that there was no significant difference when the variable of parenting was paired with learning at home or collaborating with community. The null hypothesis failed to be rejected. This means that the participants do not perceive a statistically significant difference in the effectiveness of communicating and learning at home or collaborating with community. In contrast, the probability values of communicating-volunteering t(30) = 2.334, p = .026, 95% CI [.036, .544]; and communicating-decision making t(30) = 4.139, p < .000, 95% CI [.212, .626] yielded scores less than the alpha value of .05, therefore concluding statistically significant differences when the factor of communicating was matched to the

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77 variables of volunteering and decision making. The null hypothesis was rejected and the alternative was accepted. This means that the teachers’ perceptions of communicating when paired with volunteering and decision making is significantly more effective as a parent involvement activity. Comparisons with volunteering. The third set of paired samples t-test revealed consistent results in the Sig. 2-tailed probability value. The probability values of volunteering-learning at home t(30) = -.441, p =.662, 95% CI [-.363, .234]; volunteering-decision making t(30) = 1.438, p =.161, 95% CI [-.054, .312]; and volunteering-collaborating with community t(30) = -1.360, p = .184, 95% CI [-.484, .097] each exceed the alpha value of .05, thus concluding that there were no statistically significant differences in the paired parent involvement in these areas. The null hypothesis failed to be rejected. This means that the teachers’ perceptions of volunteering as compared to learning at home, decision making, and collaborating with the community areas are not significantly different in their effectiveness of parental involvement. Learning at home comparisons. The fourth set of paired samples t-test showed no significant results in the Sig. 2-tailed probability value. The probability values of learning at home-decision making t(30 = 1.793, p = .083, 95% CI [-.027, .414]; and learning at home-collaborating with community t(30) = -1.438, p = .161, 95% CI [-.312, .054] exceed the established alpha value of .05, thus the null hypothesis failed to be rejected. This means that the participants consider that there is no difference in

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78 effectiveness of learning at home and decision making and collaborating with community parent involvement areas. Comparison of decision making. The fifth set of paired samples t-test disclosed a significant result in the Sig. 2 tailed probability value. The probability value of decision making-collaborating with community t(30) = -2.007, p = .005, 95% CI [-.542, -.103] yielded an alpha value score less than .05, thus concluding a statistically significant difference in associating decision making with collaborating with community. The null hypothesis was rejected and the alternative was accepted. This means that the participants perceive a statistically significant difference in the effectiveness of the parent involvement activities of decision making and collaborating with the community. Summary of Hypothesis 1 After running the sets of paired samples t-test, six paired samples yielded scores less than the alpha value of 0.05, thus, rejecting the null hypothesis and accepting the alternative hypothesis. The six paired samples are: (a) parenting-volunteering, (b) parenting-learning at home, (c) parenting-decision-making, (d) communicating-volunteering, (e) communicating-decision making, (f) decision making-collaborating with the community. The participants in this study perceive these paired parental activities as the most effective parental involvement activities. There are nine paired samples that exceeded the alpha value of 0.05, thus, failing to reject the null hypothesis concluding that there were no statistically significant

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79 differences in the teachers’ perceptions of the effectiveness of paired types of parent involvement: (a) parenting-communication, (b) parenting-collaborating with the community, (c) communicating-learning at home, (d) communicating-collaborating with the community, (e) volunteering-learning at home, (f) volunteering-decision making, (g) volunteering-collaborating with community, (h) learning at home-decision making, and (i) learning at home-collaborating with the community. Research Question 2 Research Question 2: Is there a significant difference between gender and years of experience as a high school teacher, and the perceptions of parent involvement within the high school teacher population? The questions that guided the data collection and analysis were driven by the following null hypotheses and alternative hypotheses. Hypotheses Hypothesis 2. Hypothesis 2 states that for each type of parent involvement: H02: There is no significant effect in teacher perceptions of parent involvement based on gender in the three high schools on Saipan. Ha2: There is a significant effect in teacher perceptions of parent involvement based on gender in the three high schools on Saipan. Hypothesis 3. Hypothesis 3 states that for each type of parent involvement:

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80 Ho3: There is no significant effect in teacher perceptions of parent involvement based on years of teaching experience in the three high schools on Saipan. Ha3: There is a significant effect in teacher perceptions of parent involvement based on years of teaching experience in the three high schools on Saipan. Hypothesis 4. Hypothesis 4 states that for each type of parent involvement: Ho4: There is no significant interaction effect of gender and years of teaching experience on teacher perceptions of parent involvement in the three high schools on Saipan. Ha4: There is a significant interaction effect of gender and years of teaching experience on teacher perceptions of parent involvement in the three high schools on Saipan. The next section will discuss and address hypotheses 2, 3, and 4 for each type of parental involvement; parenting, communicating, volunteering, learning at home, decision making and collaborating with community. Results for Type of Parent Involvement Parenting. For the parent involvement area of parenting, the Levene’s Test of Equality of Error Variances was applied to test the null hypothesis. The resulting significance is p = .290, which is greater than .05, meaning that the assumption of equal variances was not violated.

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81 A 2 (gender) x 3 (years teaching) ANOVA was calculated comparing the perceptions of men and women of various years of teaching (0-5, 6-15, 16 or more) on the effectiveness of the parent involvement area of parenting. The main effect for gender was not significant F(1, 25) = .735, p = .399. The main effect for years of teaching was not significant F(2, 25) = 1.179, p = .324. The interaction of gender x years of teaching was not significant F(2, 25) = .078, p = .925. The null hypotheses failed to be rejected. This means that in the parent involvement area of parenting, the participants’ perceptions did not differ based on gender or years of teaching. Communicating. For the parent involvement area of communicating, the Levene’s Test of Equality of Error Variances was applied to test the null hypothesis. The resulting significance is p = .302, which is greater than .05, meaning that the assumption of equal variances was not violated. A 2 (gender) x 3 (years teaching) ANOVA was calculated comparing the perceptions of men and women of various years of teaching (0-5, 6-15, 16 or more) on the effectiveness of the parent involvement area of communicating. The main effect for gender was significant F(1, 25) = 4.280, p = .049. The main effect for years of teaching was not significant F(2, 25) = .406, p = .670. The interaction of gender x years of teaching was not significant F(2, 25) = .023, p = .978. The null hypothesis for the effect of gender was rejected and the alternate hypothesis was accepted. This means that the participants’ responses to the effectiveness of the parent involvement strategy of communicating varied based on gender with female respondents reporting a higher mean

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82 (M = 3.129, SD = .591) than the male respondents (M = 2.646, SD = .481). For the other two hypotheses, years of teaching and interaction of gender with years of teaching, the null hypotheses failed to be rejected. This means that in the parent involvement area of communicating, the participants’ perceptions did not differ based on years of teaching nor was there any significant difference when analyzing the interrelationship of years of teaching with gender. Volunteering. For the parent involvement area of volunteering, the Levene’s Test of Equality of Error Variances was applied to test the null hypothesis. The resulting significance is p = .081, which is greater than .05, meaning that the assumption of equal variances was not violated. A 2 (gender) x 3 (years teaching) ANOVA was calculated comparing the perceptions of men and women of various years of teaching (0-5, 6-15, 16 or more) on the effectiveness of the parent involvement area of volunteering. The main effect for gender was not significant F(1, 25) = 1.696, p = .205. The main effect for years of teaching was not significant F(2, 25) = .930, p = .408. The interaction of gender x years of teaching was not significant F(2, 25) = .008, p = .992. The null hypotheses failed to be rejected. This means that in the parent involvement area of volunteering, the participants’ perceptions did not differ based on gender or years of teaching. Learning at home. For the parent involvement area of learning at home, the Levene’s Test of Equality of Error Variances was applied to test the null hypothesis. The

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83 resulting significance is p = .238, which is greater than .05, meaning that the assumption of equal variances was not violated. A 2 (gender) x 3 (years teaching) ANOVA was calculated comparing the perceptions of men and women of various years of teaching (0-5, 6-15, 16 or more) on the effectiveness of the parent involvement area of learning at home. The main effect for gender was not significant F(1, 25) = 2.339, p = .139. The main effect for years of teaching was not significant F(2, 25) = .772, p = .473. The interaction of gender x years of teaching was not significant F(2, 25) = .502, p = .611. The null hypotheses failed to be rejected. This means that in the parent involvement area of learning at home, the participants’ perceptions did not differ based on gender or years of teaching. Decision making. For the parent involvement area of decision making, the Levene’s Test of Equality of Error Variances was applied to test the null hypothesis. The resulting significance is p = .044, which is less than .05, meaning that the assumption of equal variances was violated, that is, the groups are not equal. A 2 (gender) x 3 (years teaching) ANOVA was calculated comparing the perceptions of men and women of various years of teaching (0-5, 6-15, 16 or more) on the effectiveness of the parent involvement area of decision making. The main effect for gender was not significant F(1, 25) = 1.799, p = .192. The main effect for years of teaching was not significant F(2, 25) = .767, p = .475. The interaction of gender x years of teaching was not significant F(2, 25) = .031, p = .969. The null hypotheses failed to be

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84 rejected. This means that in the parent involvement area of decision making, the participants’ perceptions did not differ based on gender or years of teaching. Collaborating with the community. For the parent involvement area of collaborating with community, the Levene’s Test of Equality of Error Variances was applied to test the null hypothesis. The resulting significance is p = .448, which is greater than .05, meaning that the assumption of equal variances was not violated. A 2 (gender) x 3 (years teaching) ANOVA was calculated comparing the perceptions of men and women of various years of teaching (0-5, 6-15, 16 or more) on the effectiveness of the parent involvement area of collaborating with community. The main effect for gender was not significant F(1, 25) = 2.77, p = .109. The main effect for years of teaching was not significant F(2, 25) = .166, p = .848. The interaction of gender x years of teaching was not significant F(2, 25) = .082, p = .922. The null hypotheses failed to be rejected. This means that in the parent involvement area of collaborating with community, the participants’ perceptions did not differ based on gender or years of teaching. Summary of Hypotheses 2, 3, and 4 Hypothesis 2. The null hypothesis was accepted in the five parent involvement areas indicating that there is not significant difference in teacher perceptions of parent involvement based on gender. There was a statistically significant gender difference in the parent involvement area of communicating, F(1, 25) = 4.28, p = .049, where the null

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85 hypothesis 2 was rejected and the alternative hypothesis was accepted. The alternate hypothesis that there is a significant difference based on gender should be viewed with caution given that p = .049; a Type I error is more likely to have occurred. Hypothesis 3. The null hypothesis failed to be rejected in all six parent involvement areas. This indicates that there is not significant difference in teacher perceptions of parent involvement based on years of teaching experience. Hypothesis 4. The null hypothesis failed to be rejected in all six parent involvement areas. This indicates that there is not significant difference in teacher perceptions of parent involvement based on an interaction of gender and years of teaching experience. Chapter Summary Chapter Four presented the data results and analyses based on the Research Questions and Hypotheses. Research Question 1 reveals mixed results when comparing all the six areas of parent involvement with each other. A paired-samples t-test was conducted to evaluate the mean scores on the effectiveness of the six types of parent involvement. When paired, the following were perceived more effective parental involvement activities: (a) parenting is more effective than volunteering, learning at home, and decision-making; (b) communicating is more effective than volunteering, and decision making and (c) decision making is more effective than collaborating with the

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87 CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS Parents have at least as much impact on their children’s academic success as teachers do (Jackson & Landsmann, 2009). Stouffer (1992) claims that as students grow older, parent involvement in education drops and often occurs less frequently in secondary schools than in elementary schools. Cotton and Wikelund (2001) agree that parents whose children attend secondary schools generally become less involved as children grow older because schools are bigger and farther from home, the curriculum is more sophisticated, each student has several teachers, older students are more likely to be employed, and students are beginning to establish some sense of separation and independence from their parents. Furthermore, Yap and Enoki (1994) identified specific barriers to effective parental involvement such as lack of time, language barrier, cultural differences and student attitude at the secondary level whereas students do not acknowledge their parents presence at the school and discourages parent participation in school activities. This quantitative study surveyed secondary teachers using a survey instrument based on the Comprehensive School Reform model that grew from the National Network of Partnership Schools at Johns Hopkins University, which assists states, districts, and schools to improve family and community involvement as one component of any school reform program (Epstein, 2005, p. 152). The National Parent Teacher Association foundation adopted the standards for family-school partnerships (National Parent Teacher Association, 2010). Epstein (2009) identified six types of family involvement in the

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88 schools: Parenting, Communicating, Volunteering, Learning at Home, Decision-Making, and Collaborating with the Community. The researcher used Epstein’s categories to identify the types of family involvement from the secondary teachers’ responses. The first type of parental involvement is parenting. The focus of this framework demonstrates how schools and parents can work together to help understand adolescent development (Epstein, 2009). The second type of parental involvement is communicating--the meaningful exchange of information about school programs and children’s progress between home and school. Communicating also involves the ability, if needed, of both the school and the families to access translators or interpreters for the families who do not speak English (Epstein, 2009). The third parent involvement type is volunteering; defined as attending school events and contributing to students’ career awareness and understanding of how different jobs use school skills (Epstein, 2009). The fourth parental involvement is learning at home. This area is about helping children with homework and facilitating student interests in choosing courses, summer programs, and planning for postsecondary education (Epstein, 2009). The fifth type is decision making. This type enables families to participate in decisions about school programs, as parents joining PTA/PTO organizations and other school improvement projects. The sixth type of parental involvement is collaborating with the community. Community resources are used to integrate resources and services from the community agencies and individuals.

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89 Procedure Data were collected from a web-based survey serviced by SurveyMonkey. All public high school teachers on Saipan were invited to participate in the online survey that consisted of 30 closed-ended questions. The purpose of the survey was to rate the effectiveness of the six types of parental involvement from the perceptions of the Saipan public high school teachers. Two research questions formed the basis for this study. Research Question 1 investigated how teachers rate the types of parental involvement activities in effectiveness for student academic success. A paired samples t-test was used to evaluate the mean scores on the effectiveness of the six types of parental involvement that Saipan public school teachers reported. Research Question 2 investigated the significant difference between gender and years of experience as a high school teacher and the perceptions of parental involvement within the high school teacher population. Three hypotheses were tested. The Levene’s Test of Equality of Error Variances was applied to determine the homogeneity of the groups. For the null hypotheses a 2 (gender) x 3 (years of teaching) ANOVA was calculated comparing the men and women of various years of teaching (0-5, 6-15, 16 more) on the effectiveness of each parent involvement type. Discussion Hypothesis 1 was tested to determine if there was a significant difference in mean scores on the effectiveness of the six types of parental involvement. A paired samples t-

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90 test was used to determine the mean scores of each pair and to determine by pairing the types of parent involvement, if the teachers’ perceptions of the effectiveness of one type of parent involvement activity were significantly different from another. Based on the findings of the paired samples test, the six pairs that failed to reject the null hypothesis confirms the theoretical perspective in sociology that certain variables are dependent and independent and what influences these variables (Broderick, 1993). The teachers’ perspectives on the effectiveness mirrored the literature review of the overlapping spheres of influence in complex interrelationships that define the six types of parental involvement (Epstein, 2009). Hypothesis 2 was tested to determine if teacher gender significantly impacted the teachers’ perceptions of effectiveness. A 2 x 3 ANOVA was calculated to determine any significance. The null hypothesis failed to be rejected in five types of parental involvement; there were no significant differences in the perceptions of the effectiveness of the parent involvement activities based on gender, except for the parental involvement activity of communicating. Only in the area of communicating did the female respondents report that communicating was a more effective parent involvement area than the male participants. Hypothesis 3 was tested to determine if number of teaching years experience had a significant effect on the perceptions of effectiveness of parent involvement activities. A 2 x 3 ANOVA was calculated to determine the significance. The null hypothesis failed to be rejected in all six types of parental involvement activities, which means that no significant differences in teacher perceptions exist based on number of years of teaching

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91 experience. The data from this hypothesis illustrated from the family systems theory that parental involvement activities maintain themselves in a continuous exchange and that the family systems theories is self-regulating and ongoing (Berk, 1993). Hypothesis 4 investigated an interaction of gender and the years of teaching experience. A 2 x 3 ANOVA was calculated to determine any significance. The null hypothesis failed to be rejected in all six types of parental involvement activities, which means that there is no significant difference in teacher perceptions of parental involvement based on the interaction of gender and years of teaching experience. The results of the data analysis from this survey study answered the research questions on how teachers rate the types of parent involvement activities in effectiveness for academic success in the Saipan pubic high schools. The secondary teachers on Saipan consider each of the parent involvement activities to be range between being somewhat effective and effective. Implications for Practice The results of this study provide valuable insights for the Saipan public school system teachers, Saipan high school administrators, the Title 1 Parent Involvement program manager, high school parents, and students. Stakeholders who choose to use the results of this study need to realize that this study was limited to Saipan public high school teachers only. Although this study was conducted in three high schools in Saipan, the results may be helpful in understanding that although the different types of parental

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92 involvement activities may vary in rate of effectiveness within the six types, all of the six parent involvement activities are needed. These Saipan public high school teachers rated Epstein’s six types of parent involvement in effectiveness. The data produced from this study underscored several findings that are significant to understanding the impact of professional development, training, workshops towards building awareness and improving activities that will help academic achievement and student learning. In a scale of low 1 as “Not Effective” and 4 as “Very Effective” the data from this research present how the teachers perceive the six types of parental involvement. Based on the perception of the Saipan high school teachers, Communicating rated closest to “Very Effective.” In a similar study on families and teacher perceptions on family involvement at the high school level in Georgia, communicating was ranked highly in the survey; both families and teachers rated that communicating is very important (Britten, 2009). This research confirms that teachers perceive communicating activities as effective. This indicates that Saipan high school teachers feel that communicating is very important and they may have positive experience in applying several types of communicating activities. The implication for practice is that secondary schools should build on this strength and continue to support activities that encourage communicating. These activities may include implementing student-led conferences during progress and report card days, increasing the use of digital media such as electronic communication with

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93 parents and families, and providing translators to translate messages to families at the classroom level. One of the major ways to improve communicating is to establish clear two-way channels for communications from home to school and from school to home (Epstein, 2009). High school administrators in Saipan should lead their teachers in maintaining the communicating activities. Several workshops topics on communicating to high school parents should be planned at the state and school level to enhance interpersonal and organizational communication for increased parental involvement at the high school level. Furthermore, teachers and school administrators should pay attention to nonverbal communication because sometimes, it conveys the message that make students and parents uncomfortable, uneasy and impolite. Unfortunately, teacher training pre-service programs on effective strategies for parental involvement at the high school level are sometimes not included in state level professional development (Onikama, Hammond, & Koki, 1998). Parenting was rated as the second most effective parental involvement activity. This implies that teachers feel workshops on parenting, such as providing parent education and other training for parents and family support programs are effective for student success. High school teachers perceive this as important and the school system should institute workshops that have meaningful topics to parents: planning the student career path, working with adolescent behaviors, or understanding adolescent development could increase parent involvement with their high school adolescent. Surveying parents to determine their needs in this area may help increase the relevance of

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94 the topics presented. Saipan high schools are encouraged to include these activities yearly or twice a year. Volunteering and Decision-making rated as the least effective of the types of parent involvement, rating as “not effective” and “somewhat effective.” These data suggest that Saipan high school teachers view these two areas as challenging to include in parent involvement activities. The perception of the Saipan teachers reflect other studies showing that parents do not have time or schedules are not flexible to volunteer in the classroom or on campus (Britten, 2009). Similarly decision-making rated as low in effectiveness because to be a school representative or become a parent leader requires an extensive time commitment (Epstein, 2009). Saipan secondary teachers may consider that having parents as decision makers at the school interferes with the adolescents’ progress in establishing independence. On the other hand, a research study on teacher perception indicated that families could be more involved through volunteering and decision-making in the school; teachers felt that families should have a stronger role in reviewing high school curriculum (Britten, 2009). An implication for practice is that the school system should consider including students along with parents in decision-making groups. The CNMI public school system should make increasing parental volunteering and decision-making involvement activities at the high school level a priority. The CNMI State Professional Development committee for education should look into these areas because they rated the lowest of the six types of parent involvement activities. In order for the state data to improve, stakeholders need to give this much attention. Furthermore, because many of the volunteering and decision-making activities involve

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95 parents, lawmakers and the business community should be included to feel that urgency of the parental involvement at the high school level. Other studies have indicated that effective leadership, focused professional development, and high levels of parent and community involvement have shown positive and convincing findings that benefit student success (Henderson & Mapp, 2002). Several ideas to address these pairs at the Saipan high school level are: (a) recruit parents to take part in school events or activities, (b) explore ways through surveys and interviews on ways to share what best practices other families are doing, (c) ask families about their expectations for their children’s education, (e) provide training for teachers and parents on how to work effectively together, and (d) work with families to build social and political connections (Henderson & Mapp, 2002). The findings of the study on gender and the number of years teaching that there is no significant differences on each type of parental involvement activities suggests that teachers are comfortable with the parental involvement activities happening at their high school. School and home partnership program should be enhanced. Workshops on the importance of adolescent development, career planning and community programs for teens are highly recommended as part of parent involvement benefitting student success (Epstein, 2008). Without these workshops, some of the Saipan high school students will be left with an incomplete support system (Epstein, 2008). Recommendations for Future Research The following recommendations are made for future research:

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96 1. The researcher recommends that future research be done on teachers’ perceptions of parental involvement at the elementary and junior high school level in Saipan public schools to see how the K-8 teachers rate the parent involvement activities. 2. The researcher also recommends that future research include the other islands of the CNMI, such as Tinian and Rota public high schools to get a holistic teacher perception on parental involvement in all the public high schools 3. The researcher recommends conducting future research on private high school teachers to see if there are significant differences in how they rate the six types of parental involvement in effectiveness. 4. The researcher also recommends future research on parent involvement look at the teachers’ ethnic perspectives to provide insights on cultural differences of parental involvement and education. 5. This study showed the teachers’ perceptions of parental involvement. The researcher recommends an extension of this research to invite parents of the Saipan public high schools to rate the effectiveness of the six types of parental involvement. 6. The researcher recommends a qualitative approach in gathering data. Using qualitative methods may bring other perspectives to assist schools looking at parent involvement activities. Summary This chapter discussed the conclusions from the paired-samples t-test used to evaluate the mean scores on the effectiveness of the six types of parental involvement

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97 that Saipan public high school teachers reported. A 2 x 3 ANOVA was calculated to compare the perceptions of men and women of various years of teaching on their perceptions of the effectiveness of each of the six types of parent involvement. The data imply minimal difference which means that in general the secondary teachers of Saipan do not perceive one type of parent involvement activity to be more effective than another. Epstein’s (2009) theoretical perspective of overlapping spheres of influence lies not only in the identification of different types of parental involvement but that parents’ involvement in their children’s education and family-school connections are not static. Future research recommendations were proposed to extend this research topic and to add to the existing body of knowledge in this part of the world, the Pacific basin. The CNMI Public School System has adopted the six types of parental involvement from the McREL lab as part of their systemic improvement. As Broderick (1993) reiterates, sociologists are constantly generating an all-inclusive theory of social actions that would explain social and familial patterns of behavior. For the researcher, parental involvement does lend itself to improved academic achievement. The Saipan public high school teachers now have data on parental involvement that lay the foundation for an action team and action plans that will link to school improvement. When paired, the following types of parent involvement were perceived more effective: (a) parenting is more effective than volunteering, learning at home, and decision-making, (b) communicating is more effective than volunteering and decision-making and (c) decision-making is more effective than collaborating with the community. These pairs serve as activities that can help all parents become involved in many ways. This research strongly supports parent

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99 REFERENCES Adkins, P. (2002). What’s a parent to do? Character Counts! National Office. Los Angeles, CA: Josephson Institute of Ethics. Agronick, G., Clark, A., O’Donnell, L., & Steuve, A. (2009). Parent involvement strategies in urban middle and high schools in the Northeast and Islands Region. (Issues and Answers Report, REL 2009-No.069). Washington, DC. Alexander, K., & Alexander, M. D. (2009). American public school law (7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Anderson, K. J., & Minke, K. M. (2007). Parent involvement in education: Toward an understanding of parents’ decision making. The Journal of Educational Research, 100(5), 311-323. Baker, A. J., Piotrikowski, C. S., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1998). The effects of the home instruction program for preschool youngsters (HIPPY) on children’s school performance at the end of the program and one year later. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 13(4), 571-588. Baker, A. J., & Soden, L. M. (1997). Parent involvement in children’s education: A critical assessment of the knowledge base. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association. Chicago, IL. Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Bandura, A. (1992). Perceived self-efficacy in cognitive development and functioning. Educational Psychologist, 28, 117-118. Bandura, A. (2001). Social cognitive theory: An agentic perspective. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 1-26. Beach, M. E. (1997). Parent involvement and the new Title 1. Journal of Education for Students Placed At-Risk, 2(1) 7-9. Berk, L. (2005). Infants, children and adolescents (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Allyn & Bacon. Berman, S. (1964). Techniques of treatment of a form of juvenile delinquency, the antisocial character disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 3(4), 24-52. Bertalanffy, L. V. (1968). General systems theory. New York, NY: George Braziller.

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101 Deslandes, R., & Bertrand, R. (2005). Motivation of parent involvement in secondary-level schooling. The Journal of Educational Research, 98(3), 164-175. de Toledo, S., & Brown, D. E. (1995). Grandparents as parents: A survival guide for raising a second family. New York, NY: Guilford Press. Durkheim, E. (1951). A study in sociology (J. A. Spaulding & G. Simpson, Trans.). Glencoe, IL: The Free Press. Elam, S. M. (1989). The second Gallup/Phi Delta Kappa survey of public school teacher opinion. Phi Delta Kappan, 70(10), 785-799. Englund, M., Luckner, A., Whaley, G., & Egeland, B. (2004). Children’s achievement in early elementary school: Longitudinal effects of parental involvement, expectations and quality of assistance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(4), 723-730. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.96.4.723 Epstein, J. L. (2005). A case study of the partnership schools comprehensive school reform (CSR) model. The Elementary School Journal, 106(2), 151-170. Epstein, J. L. (2008). Improving family and community involvement in secondary schools. Principal Leadership, 8, 16-22. Epstein, J. L., & Associates. (2009). School, family and community partnership: Your handbook for action (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Epstein, J. L., Connors-Tadros, L., Horsey, C. S., & Simon, B. S. (1996). High school and family partnership surveys of teachers, parents and students: Reliabilities and summaries of scales. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University. Epstein, J. L., Connors-Tadros, L., & Salinas, K. C. (1993). High school and family partnerships: Surveys for teachers, parents, and students in high school. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University. Epstein, J. L., & Sanders, M. G. (2000). Connecting home, school and community: New directions for social research. In M. T. Hallinan (Ed.), Handbook of the sociology of education (pp. 285-306). New York, NY: Kluwer Academic/Plenum. Erikson, E. (1950). Childhood and society. New York, NY: Norton. Farrell, D. (2011). History of the Mariana Islands to partition. Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, MP: CNMI Public Schools.

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102 Fege, A. F. (2006). Getting Ruby a quality public education: Forty-two years of building the demand for quality public schools through parental and public involvement. Harvard Educational Review, 76(4), 570-586. Fischer, L., & Schimmel, D. (1978). The rights of parents. Theory into Practice, 17(4), 321-328. Flood, B., Cunningham, L., & Adams, C. (2001). Marianas Island legends, myth, and magic. Honolulu, HI: Bess Press. Gewertz, G. (2008, October 29). Parents show strong interest in school involvement. Education Week, 5. Gigliotti, R. J., & Brookober, W. B. (1988). First teachers: Parental involvement in the public schools. Alexandria, VA: National School Boards Association. Henderson, A., & Mapp, K. (2002). A new wave of evidence: The impact of school, family and community connections on student achievement. Retrieved from http://www.sedl.org/connections/research-syntheses.html Henderson, A. T., Mapp, K. L., Johnson, V. R., & Davies, D. (2007). Beyond the bake sale: The essential guide to family-school partnership. New York, NY: The New Press. Hickman, L. D. (2007). Barriers that impede parental involvement in urban high schools: The parents’ perspective (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI 3250063) Hines, A. R., & Paulson, S. E. (2006). Parents’ and teachers’ perceptions of adolescent storm and stress: Relations with parenting and teaching styles. Adolescence, 41(164), 597-614. Hoover-Dempsey, K. V., & Sandler, H. M. (1997). Why do parents become involved in their children’s education? Review of Educational Research, 67(1), 3-42. Hornby, G. (2000). Improving parental involvement. London, Great Britain: Continuum International. Ho Sui-Chu, E., & Wilms, D. (1996). Effects of parental involvement on eighth-grade achievement. Sociology of Education, 69(92), 126-141. Huck, S. W. (2004). Reading statistics and research (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education.

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103 Hudley, C., & Gottfried, A. (2008). Academic motivation and the culture of school in childhood and adolescence. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Irvin, J. L., Meltzer, J., & Dukes, M. (2007). Taking action on adolescent literacy. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. Izzo, C. V., Weissberg, R. P., Kasprow, W. J., & Fendrich, M. (1999). A longitudinal assessment of teacher perceptions of parent involvement in children’s education and school performance. American Journal of Community Psychology, 27(6), 817-839. Jackson, B., & Landsmann, L. (2009, January 21). Improve education from day one: Leverage parents. Education Week, 28(18), 27. Jackson, J. R. (2008). Making a child’s education a priority: A case study of factors influencing the lack of parental involvement in Georgia public high school (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI 3339295) Jacobs, N., & Harvey, D. (2005). Do parents make a difference to children’s academic achievement? Differences between parents of higher and lower achieving students. Educational Studies, 31(4), 431-448. doi:101080/03055690500415746 Jeyenes, W. H. (2005). The effects of parental involvement on the academic achievement of African American youth. The Journal of Negro Education, 74(3), 260-274. Joftus, S. (2002). Every child a graduate: A framework for an excellent education for all middle and high school students. Washington, DC: Alliance for Excellent Education. Jordan, G. E., Snow, C. E., & Porche, M. V. (2000). Project EASE: The effect of a family literacy project on kindergarten students’ early literacy skills. Reading Research Quarterly, 35(4), 524-546. LaBahn, J. (1995). Education and parental involvement in secondary schools: Problems, solutions, and effects. Retrieved from http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/files/parinvol Lyons, P., Robbins, A., & Smith, A. (1983). Involving parents: A handbook for participation in schools. Ypsilanti, MI: High Scope Press. Malinowski, B. (1992). Argonauts of the western Pacific. New York, NY: E. P. Dutton. McEachron-Hirsch, G. (Ed.). (1993). Student self-esteem. Lancaster, PA: Technomic.

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104 Moraine, C. (2001). Family systems theory. Retrieved from http://web.pdx.edu/cbcm/CFS410U/FamilySystemsTheory.pdf National Parent Teacher Association. (2010). Parental engagement in the Elementary and Secondary Education Act-No Child Left Behind Act (ESEA-NCLB). Retrieved from Parent Teacher Association website: http://www.pta.org National Parent Teacher Association. (2010). National PTA public policy agenda. Retrieved from Parent Teacher Association website: http://www.pta.org/public_policy_agenda.asp National Center for Educational Statistics [NCES]. (1993). What are the most serious problems in schools? Retrieved from National Center for Educational Statistics website: http://nces.ed.gov/pubs93/web93149.asp Onikama, D.L., Hammond, O. W., & Koki, S. (1998). Family involvement in education: A synthesis of research for Pacific educators. Retrieved from ERIC database. (ED 420446) Ordorica, D. (2009, January 5). The parent factor: What it means and how to enhance it. Education Week, 13-14. Patrikakou, E. N. (2004). Adolescence: Are parents relevant to students’ high school achievement and post-secondary attainment? Retrieved from Harvard Family Research Project website: http://www.hfrp.org/publications-resources/browse-our-publications Piaget, J. (1930). The child’s conception of the world. New York, NY: Harcourt, Brace, & World. Radcliff-Brown, A. R. (1922). The Andaman Islanders. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Radcliff-Brown, A. R. (1952). Structure and function in primitive society. London, England: Cohen & West. Ramirez, A. Y. (1999). Teachers’ attitudes toward parents and parental involvement in high school (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (9932692) Roosevelt University. (1990). Parent participation programs in Chicago Public Schools. Chicago, IL: College of Education.

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105 Schwab, J., Gray-Ice, H. M., & Prentice, F. R. (2001). Family functioning: The general living systems research model. Hingham, MA: Kluwer Academic. Senechal, M., & LeFevre, J. (2002). Parental involvement in the development of children’s reading skills: A five-year longitudinal study. Child Development, 73(2), 445-460. Senge, P. (1990). The fifth discipline. New York, NY: Doubleday. Simon, B. S. (2000). Predictors of high school and family partnerships and the influence of partnerships on student success (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD. Stouffer, B. (1992). We can increase parent involvement in secondary schools. NASSP Bulletin, 76(5), 5-8. doi:10.1177/019263659207654 Trojanowicz, R. C. (1978). Juvenile delinquency: Concepts and control (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. U.S. Department of Education. (1983). A nation at risk. Retrieved from http://www.ed.gov/pubs/NatAtRisk/risk.html U.S. Department of Education. (1996). Background and brief history of the ESEA. Retrieved from http://www.ed.gov/legislation/ESEA/Guidance/pt1.html U.S. Department of Education. (2002). No Child Left Behind: A desktop reference. Retrieved from http://www.ed.gov/pubs/edpubs.html U.S. Department of Education (2004). Parental Involvement: Title I, Part A. Retrieved from http://www.ed.gov/parentalinvolvement/ U.S. Department of Education. (2007). State ESEA Title 1 participation information for 2003-2004. Retrieved from http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/opepd/ppss/reports.htm#title U.S. Department of Education. (2010). A blueprint for reform. Retrieved from http://www2.ed.gov/policy/elsec/leg/blueprint/ Wheeler, P. (1992). Promoting parent involvement in secondary schools. NASSP Bulletin, 76(28), 28-35. doi:10.1177/019263659207654606 Wiersma, W. (2000). Research methods in education: An introduction. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon

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109 Letter to Principals Dear Principal: I am conducting a study as part of the requirements for my doctoral dissertation to determine teachers’ perceptions on parental involvement at the high school level and would like to solicit your support in conducting my study entitled, Teacher Perceptions Regarding Parental Involvement in the Saipan Public High Schools at your school. Your participation in this study involves your teachers completing the survey. I would like to request your permission to distribute Letters of Introduction for your teachers who teach in grades 9, 10, 11, or 12. The survey will take approximately 15-20 minutes to complete; the teachers who voluntarily choose to take the survey are asked to take the survey instrument outside of their work hours. The only anticipated risk associated with this study is that the teachers will have to answer the survey on their own time. Because this is an online survey all participants’ information and responses are anonymous. Any teacher who volunteers to take the survey can decline to answer any question and withdraw from the study at any time with no adverse consequences. The results of the surveys will be summarized and presented as aggregate data--no personally identifiable information will be gathered or reported. All data will be kept in a locked file cabinet in my home office to which I will be the only person with the key. All data will be destroyed three years after the completion of the study, on August 1, 2015. Please let me know if you need more information from me. Thank you so much for your continued support. Sincerely, Alfred B. Ada Doctoral Student Argosy University-Hawaii Your signature below indicates your voluntary consent for me to invite the teachers at your school to participate in this survey. Signature :__________________________ Print Name :__________________________ School :__________________________ Date :__________________________

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111 Teacher Letter of Introduction Dear Teacher, Greetings! As a high school teacher of the CNMI Public School System, you are invited to participate in a research study entitled Teacher Perceptions Regarding Parental Involvement in the Saipan Public High Schools. My name is Alfred Ada and this study is being conducted as part of the requirements to complete my doctoral degree at Argosy University-Hawaii. The purpose of this research is to investigate the perceptions of teachers on parental involvement in the public high schools of Saipan grades 9-12. Your participation in this research study is voluntary. The only known risk involved in participating in this study is that you will have to spend some time outside your work hours to answer the survey. If you decide to participate in this research survey, you may withdraw at anytime and you can decline to answer any question without incurring any adverse consequences. If you decide not to participate in this study or if you withdraw from participating at any time, you will not be penalized. To be considered a participant in this study you must be (a) CNMI teacher on Saipan of students in grade 9, 10, 11, or 12 and (b) 18 years of age or older. The procedure involves responding to an online survey that will take approximately 15-20 minutes. For the survey questionnaire, please use the following URL to access the online survey <SurveyMonkey> outside of your work hours. The survey will be available online only from [date to be inserted later] to [date 2 weeks after opening date]. Your responses will be anonymous and I will not collect identifying information such as your name, e-mail address, or IP address. The survey contains demographic questions followed by questions about your perceptions concerning parental involvement in the high school. All data will be reported as aggregate summary data. All data will be stored in a password protected electronic format. The raw data will be kept in a locked cabinet in my home office that I will be the only one with the key. Only my dissertation chair and I will have access to the raw data. To protect your confidentiality, the surveys will not contain information that will personally identify you. The results of this study will be used for scholarly purposes only and may be shared with the Commissioner of Education and Argosy University representatives. All data will be destroyed three years after the completion of this study, August 1, 2015. If you would like to see a copy of the results, the findings will be available at the Argosy University-Hawaii library: Argosy University-Hawaii 1001 Bishop Street, Suite 400 Honolulu, HI 96813

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114 Survey Questionnaire Please respond to each of the following statements using the scale provided. Indicate to what degree you believe the listed activity is an effective form of parent involvement at your school. Part I: 1. Providing information to parents on parenting skills and adolescent development. ☐ Not effective ☐ Somewhat effective☐ Effective ☐ Very effective 2. Providing information on the services in the community that parents can use to assist their families. ☐ Not effective ☐ Somewhat effective☐ Effective ☐ Very effective 3. Having parents check regularly that homework is done. ☐ Not effective ☐ Somewhat effective☐ Effective ☐ Very effective 4. Having parents set up a quiet place and time at home for their teen to study. ☐ Not effective ☐ Somewhat effective☐ Effective ☐ Very effective 5. Helping their teen balance homework, home chores, and outside activities. ☐ Not effective ☐ Somewhat effective☐ Effective ☐ Very effective 6. Having parents attend at least one conference with the teacher. ☐ Not effective ☐ Somewhat effective☐ Effective ☐ Very effective 7. Providing parents special activities to help their teen improve his or her grades. ☐ Not effective ☐ Somewhat effective☐ Effective ☐ Very effective 8. Having parents participate in PTA/PTO, other committees, and decision-making roles. ☐ Not effective ☐ Somewhat effective☐ Effective ☐ Very effective 9. Having parents help with fundraising activities for school clubs. ☐ Not effective ☐ Somewhat effective☐ Effective ☐ Very effective 10. Having parents involved in reviewing school policies. ☐ Not effective ☐ Somewhat effective☐ Effective ☐ Very effective 11. Having parents volunteer in the classroom or outside of the classroom. ☐ Not effective ☐ Somewhat effective☐ Effective ☐ Very effective 12. Having parents attend assemblies and other events at the school. ☐ Not effective ☐ Somewhat effective☐ Effective ☐ Very effective

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115 13. Providing information and ideas to families about how to help their teen at home with homework and other curriculum related activities. ☐ Not effective ☐ Somewhat effective☐ Effective ☐ Very effective 14. Providing information to parents on how to monitor their teen’s homework. ☐ Not effective ☐ Somewhat effective☐ Effective ☐ Very effective 15. Informing parents how to help their teen plan for life beyond high school. ☐ Not effective ☐ Somewhat effective☐ Effective ☐ Very effective 16. Surveying parents for their ideas on how to improve the school. ☐ Not effective ☐ Somewhat effective☐ Effective ☐ Very effective 17. Involving parents on committees to review the high school curriculum. ☐ Not effective ☐ Somewhat effective☐ Effective ☐ Very effective 18. Encouraging their teen to participate in community activities. ☐ Not effective ☐ Somewhat effective☐ Effective ☐ Very effective 19. Working with businesses for volunteers, donations, or other resources to improve programs at the school. ☐ Not effective ☐ Somewhat effective☐ Effective ☐ Very effective 20. Working with community members to arrange learning opportunities. ☐ Not effective ☐ Somewhat effective☐ Effective ☐ Very effective 21. Including parents in the school’s decisions. ☐ Not effective ☐ Somewhat effective☐ Effective ☐ Very effective 22. Developing parent leaders and representatives in the school. ☐ Not effective ☐ Somewhat effective☐ Effective ☐ Very effective 23. Talking to their teen regularly about classwork in their school subjects. ☐ Not effective ☐ Somewhat effective☐ Effective ☐ Very effective 24. Attending evening meeting and performances of their teen at school. ☐ Not effective ☐ Somewhat effective☐ Effective ☐ Very effective 25. Contacting parents when their teen has problems or failures. ☐ Not effective ☐ Somewhat effective☐ Effective ☐ Very effective 26. Contacting parents when their teen has successes. ☐ Not effective ☐ Somewhat effective☐ Effective ☐ Very effective

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116 27. Informing parents of the skills required to pass my class. ☐ Not effective ☐ Somewhat effective☐ Effective ☐ Very effective 28. Knowing that the community values education for its students. ☐ Not effective ☐ Somewhat effective☐ Effective ☐ Very effective 29. Partnering with businesses and community organizations to enrich school programs. ☐ Not effective ☐ Somewhat effective☐ Effective ☐ Very effective 30. Assigning homework that requires students to talk with someone at home. ☐ Not effective ☐ Somewhat effective☐ Effective ☐ Very effective Part II: Select your answer from the choices given. 1. Your position: ☐ Teacher ☐ Counselor ☐ Other 2. Your age: ☐ 18-30 ☐ 31-45 ☐ 46-60 ☐ 61+ 3. What grades are you currently teaching? Check all that apply. ☐ 9 ☐ 10 ☐ 11 ☐ 12 ☐ Special education 4. Gender: ☐ Male ☐ Female 5. Total years of teaching including this year: ☐ 0-5 ☐ 6-15 ☐ 16+ 6. What is your highest education attainment? ☐ Bachelor ☐ Bachelor with credits ☐ Master ☐ Master with credits ☐ Doctorate ☐ Doctorate with credits ☐ Other 7. How do you describe your ethnicity? ☐ African American ☐ Asian ☐ Carolinian ☐ Caucasian ☐ Chamorro ☐ Filipino ☐ Pacific Islander ☐ Other Thank you for taking part in this survey.

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120 Consent for Participation Teacher Perceptions Regarding Parental Involvement in the Saipan Public High Schools Instructions for Participants Completing Survey Research Consent: The purpose of this research study will investigate the perceptions of teachers on parental involvement in the Saipan public high schools of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) Public School System, grades 9 through 12. By completing and submitting this survey, you are giving your consent for the researcher to include your responses in his data analysis. Your participation in this survey also affirms that you meet the study criteria of being 18 years of age or older and a high school teacher in Saipan. The only known risk associated in this study is the time you need to answer the survey questions. Your participation in this research study is strictly voluntary and you may choose not to participate without fear of penalty or any negative consequences. You may withdraw at any time and choose not to answer any question that makes you feel uncomfortable. All individual responses are anonymous; no individual information will be disclosed or published and all results will presented as aggregate summary data. If you wish, you may request a copy of the results of this research study through Argosy University-Hawaii at: Argosy University-Hawaii 1001 Bishop Street, Suite 400 Honolulu, HI 96813 Participant’s consent: I have read the Letter of Introduction detailing the purpose and procedures for this research, and I have contacted the researcher for any questions I had concerning the study. I am completing this survey as evidence of my consent to be a participant in this research study and for my responses to be used for the analysis. I affirm that I meet the research criteria as described above and in the Letter of Introduction. Participant clicks to either approve (consent for data use) or not approve (refuse consent for data use). Approval takes participant to survey; no approval exits the webpage and survey.